SECTION V
Chapter 4 - Alexandria and the Collapse of Science

The Famous Library at Alexandria, Symbol of Learning of the Ancient World

  The city of Alexandria--built in 332 B.C.E. in honor of Alexander the Great,
was one of the greatest cosmopolitan cities in the ancient world. In 306 B.C.E., 
upon the death of Alexander, his general Ptolemy ruled Egypt and established 
the Ptolemaic dynasty.  Ptolemy had (like Alexander the Great) been a pupil of 
Aristotle's, and determined to build a center of Greek learning that would
be the envy of the ancient world. He built a Museum (which means literally 
"House of the Muses") which referenced the belief in deities inspiring the 
artists to produce great works. At some point a library was added as a 
complement, probably started by Ptolemy I Soter, but added upon by his son 
Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who reigned from 282BCE to 246BCE.  This library of 
Alexandria was reputed to be the greatest the ancient western world had ever 
known.

  The library at Alexandria was a repository for all the works of science,
history, and the arts from around the world. Indeed, the library at
Alexandria contained more books on ancient learning (by some estimates around
a half a million titles, a huge number.) According to one ancient historian 
(Galen), any ship stopping over in the harbor at Alexandria was stopped and 
searched for new books. If any were found, the ship was forced to dock until the 
book could be copied--with the original work being kept for the great library.

  Within a century of its founding, Alexandria had grown into a metropolis
of over a million inhabitants-- and had largely displaced Athens as the seat
of Greek knowledge and science. Scientific research spanned such areas as
astronomy, medicine, mathematics, and engineering. In was here in Alexandria
that Eratosthenes (273-192 B.C.E.), who was chief librarian, performed his 
amazingly accurate calculation on the size of the earth. Euclid developed his 
theorems on geometry in Alexandria, and Archimedes studied engineering and 
mechanics here. Herophilos (335 B.C.E.) engaged in the sciences of anatomy and 
physiology (This was during a brief period of Greek history when the ban against 
human dissection was lifted.  Outraged religious pagans soon convinced the king 
of Egypt to re-instate the ban forbidding any dissection on dead bodies.)
Herophilos followed the school of Hippocrates in using observation to diagnose
his patients.  He was the first to time his patient's pulse. (He used a water
clock). Hero of Alexandria (62 C.E.) invented an instrument for cutting metal
screws, and built various devices using gear wheels. Even more impressive,
was his design (never implemented) of the first steam powered engine.

   
Alexandria During the times of the Roman Empire

  In Alexandria and elsewhere, pagans of Greek descent carried on the tradition 
of science and philosophy (although this became more and more intertwined with 
Greek Platonic mysticism by the second century C.E.) Claudius Ptolemy, worked 
and taught in Alexandria between 127-151 C.E. His encyclopedia of astronomy 
accumulated impressive data on the positions of the stars and planets using  
trigonometry. Indeed, his astrological measurements became the standard used in 
the West, until the times of Copernicus and Kepler. Although Ptolemy made 
important contributions in charting maps (such as by using observations based on 
latitude and longitude in his surveys)--at the same time, mystical beliefs and 
philosophy of the times, can also be seen in Ptolemy's treatise on astrology. 
For example, he believed that the earth was located at the center of the 
universe, and that the stars in the heavens could hold divine influence upon the 
actions of mankind.
  
     As Neo-Platonist thought became popular during the second and third 
centuries C.E. through such philosophers as Plotinus of Alexandria (d 270 C.E.), 
Porphyry (d 300 DA) and Iamblichus (d 330 C.E.), philosophy became less and 
less concerned with scientific measurements and experiment-- and mystical 
ideals and concepts became increasingly popular. To Plotinus, the highest 
good was the contemplation of Plato's "Absolute" in heaven.  In the writings 
of Porphyry and Iamblichus, these mystical views regarding the divine in 
nature, were translated into the everyday belief in magical aids, sorcery, 
and astrology.

   In this way, through the influence of Stoicism and Neoplatonism, many 
aristocratic pagans had migrated towards a form of monotheism, albeit one with a 
hierarchy of lesser deities and a supreme god at its top.  Some of the early 
church Christian fathers lived in Alexandria, and were influenced by the 
powerful synthesis of Jewish, Platonic, and pagan currents of thinking from 
these times (substituting angels and saints for the lesser deities). For 
example, Origen (around 185-254 C.E.) merged Christian doctrine with Platonic 
and Neo-Platonic thought--making Christianity more attractive to educated pagans 
in the late second and third centuries C.E. (See Section V, Chapter 1).

   By the late fourth century, Origen's liberal views on Christianity fell
into disfavor, as Christian orthodoxy moved towards the far right. Alexandria
became caught up in the midst of powerful political-social upheavals--as
Christians, under various bishops, were determined to stamp out all pagan
and Jewish influences. 

What was the Fate of the Library of Alexandria?

     Carl Sagan writes eloquently in his book Cosmos of a single large library 
which he hints was destroyed by fanatical Christians.  But the truth is, 
scholars have had a much more difficult time piecing this together. The ancient 
records are not clear exactly where the Royal Library was housed.  Fires no 
doubt took their toll on some on one or more of Alexandria's libraries 
(including a documented fire that occurred around 47-8 B.C.E. from Julius Caesar 
defending himself in Alexandria from a local coup.) 

   Still, obviously some portion of the scrolls survived, as Alexandria remained 
a huge attraction to scholars for hundreds more years. Probably many of the 
scrolls were moved to several large libraries in the first centuries of the 
early Christian era, including some that were annexed to Jewish and pagan 
Temples within the city.

   When the world famous pagan Serapeum was attacked and destroyed by a 
Christian mob in 391 C.E., its main library was also emptied of its books 
(whether destroyed or removed to other locations, is not perfectly clear from 
the sources.)  Still, no doubt other libraries were left standing, at least 
initially (including a library where Hypatia studied and taught).

    However, with the famous Serapeum destroyed, Christians began attacking 
other pagan targets as well.   During the next decades, the current bishop of 
Alexandria--Bishop Cyril--after a violent series of exchanges with the Jews in 
the city, was successful in expelling them out of Alexandria, destroying their 
synagogues, and confiscating their property.   Many Christian contemporaries 
were visibly impressed by Cyril's successes--as Jews (though a minority) were a 
large and important segment of Alexandrian society--dating back to when the city 
was originally built in honor of Alexander the Great. (Pierre Churvin, A 
CHRONICLE OF THE LAST PAGANS, p 87.)  The pagans would be next.

Hypatia, Pagan Scholar 

   During this time, the famous pagan Hypatia (born 370 C.E.) lived in 
Alexandria. By all accounts Hypatia was a brilliant woman who was considered one 
of the leading experts in mathematics and the sciences--and frequently lectured 
on the works of Plato and Aristotle.  As an adult, she impressed everyone she 
met with both her great intellect and beauty. 

   Hypatia befriended the Christian Roman governor of Alexandria, who was a 
bitter enemy of Bishop Cyril.  It was after a bitter confrontation between these 
two men (over Cyril's expulsion of the Jews in the city), that Hypatia was
murdered.

   The year was 415 C.E., during Lent--when it was not uncommon for fasting
and religious ecstasy to whip the people up into violence. Upon returning
home from a long trip, Hypatia was seized by a group of Cyril's fanatical
parishioners, and dragged from her carriage into their local church.   There,
they tore off her clothes--and armed with abalone shells--stabbed and hacked
her to pieces. Her remains were then paraded down the streets and later
publicly burned. (It was never "proven" that Cyril himself was present,
even though the "event" took place in his church). For his efforts in
Christianizing the city, Cyril was later canonized by the Catholic Church
as a saint.

   Most remaining pagan scholars, fearing the violence that had erupted,
left the city--by some accounts to Athens.  These pagans took many of their 
books with them, but many books from the temple libraries appear to have also 
been "emptied" by Christians as well.

   According to the Christian historian Orosius, who visited Alexandria in the 
same year as Hypatia's death – ie 415 C.E.: "There are temples nowadays, which 
we have seen, whose book-cases have been emptied by our men. And this is a 
matter that admits no doubt. (Mostafa El-Abbadi, The Life and Fate of the 
Ancient Library of Alexandria, Part III, ch. 5 "The Fate of the Library and the 
Mouseion", 1992, pp. 164-167).  

The Decline of Secular Learning

  The death of Hypatia and the exodus of remaining pagan scholars from 
Alexandria became symbolic of a new Age-- an age which would largely eclipse the 
old hellenistic civilization in favor of a new world view.  However, what became 
lost in this process was not the mere collection of knowledge (which other great 
cultures such as the Egyptians had done before them)-- but instead the unique 
Greek fusion of philosophy with science--their combination of the individual's 
drive for human freedom along with an inquiry into the very elements of the
universe itself.

  As we have seen, pagans had in recent centuries begun stressing mysticism as 
opposed to the natural sciences. The mystery religions and Greek philosophies, 
like Christianity, had also focused the believer on his spiritual well-being, 
and hope in the afterlife.

  However, Orthodox Christians took this one step further--because they not
only de-emphasized "natural" scientific causes, but declared them inherently
sinful and evil as well. Instead, all natural phenomenon became viewed as
manifestations of the divine--either of God himself or demonic powers.

  During this time, Christian doctrine forged a new alliance--essentially
combining philosophy with theology--ie throwing science completely out of
its doctrinal outlook.  Christian education focused on liberal arts (such as 
grammar and rhetoric) and textbook summaries of classical philosophy and 
literature that conformed to Christian doctrine. (Norman Cantor, CIVILIZATION OF 
THE MIDDLE AGES, Harper Perennial, 1992, p. 81)

   Some early Christian writers, such as Tertullian (160-230 C.E.) and Ambrose
had argued that the study of science was unnecessary, since the Gospel of
Jesus Christ had been received. According to Tertullian,

  "For the faithful, empirical inquiry is unnecessary, a distraction from the
  practice of his religion and possibly a source of dangerous heresy."

According to Eusebius, on the subject of scientists,

  "It is not through ignorance of the things admired by them, but through
   contempt of their useless labor, that we think little of these matters,
  turning our souls to better things" [ie the contemplation of God and heaven].

According to St. Ambrose,

  "To discuss the nature and position of the earth, does not help us in
   our hope of the earth to come."

   However, it was St. Augustine (Bishop of Hippo from 395-430 C.E.), who
expanded the concept to where it became an integral part of the official
doctrine of Orthodox Christianity. According to Augustine:

 "Seek not to understand that you may believe, but believe that you
  may understand."

and

  "Cursed is everyone who places his hope in man."

   During these times which led Western Christian society into an era (dubbed by 
some historians as the "Dark Ages"), secular knowledge was held to be 
unimportant, even sinful when compared to the greater wisdom of the scriptures.

  As we shall see in the next chapters, Augustine is considered to be the
greatest thinker within Christian antiquity. Indeed, (after the apostles)
St. Augustine did more than any other individual to shape Western Christian
doctrine and theology for the next thousand years. Based on St. Augustine's
blueprint for Christian society--the Catholic Church discarded early Christian
traditions stressing individual freedom and choice of right over wrong-- in
favor of a doctrine that stressed the need for an all-powerful authoritarian
body to rule over society.