Growth of Heresy During the early Dark Ages, the ability to read and write was confined almost exclusively to the clergy. Knowledge of Latin was also necessary for reading--as there were essentially no books written in the local language of the people. Even original Greek and Hebrew works had been translated so that they only existed in Latin. After Charlemagne opened new schools, more people learned how to read in Latin--which meant that more and more people were also gaining the knowledge to read the Bible for themselves. A controversy soon emerged whether anyone outside the auspices of the Church should be allowed to DIRECTLY read the Bible for themselves. The Church fought this trend, determined to keep to itself, its monopoly on the source and interpretation of Christian dogma. First, the Church argued that it was NO ACCIDENT that knowledge of the Bible had fallen exclusively into Church hands. Indeed, this was part of God's Plan! As proof, Church authorities pointed to the gospel verses that quoted Jesus as saying, "Men shall see and not understand." This was now interpreted to mean that God had appointed the Church to be the sole guardian of his Holy Word. (Andrew McCall, THE MEDIEVAL UNDERWORLD, Dorset Press, 1991, pp236-7) After around 1080--in the aftermath of the delayed Second Coming--the Catholic Church forbade not only vernacular translations of the Bible, but any Mass books as well. Official bans on Bible translations occurred during synods at Toulouse (1229) and Beziers (1246). In 1369, Charles IV, after obtaining the consent of Pope Urban V, forbade anyone outside of the church to use translations of Bibles in the common language. Any group who did not acknowledge the sole authority of the Church on biblical interpretation and doctrine were labeled as "heretics"! These later edicts (as we shall see) came in response to individuals who challenged the authority of the Catholic Church as the head of Christianity. Rise of Heresy In previous centuries, religious zealots either devoted their energy towards missionary drives to convert European heathens-- or else had withdrawn to live away from society in a monastery. However, now religious zealots reading the scriptures for themselves, had different ideas on how Christian living should be interpreted. Worst, (from the Church's perspective) these new heretical groups were often highly respectable, God-fearing individuals, who were gaining many converts. The persecution faced by "heretical" evangelical groups increased over time. Just as the Roman pagans had found that the use of force on Christian martyrs only seemed to multiply their numbers--the Catholic Church found that (despite their edicts outlawing heretical sects) that heresy still seemed to increase. (In the 13th century, Bertold von Regensburg counted up as many as 150 different heretical sects.) In general, organized heretical groups did NOT develop a strong base in those areas where authority was concentrated--such as England, northern France, and southern Italy.--For there, secular authorities cooperated with the Catholic Church in quickly stamping out any movement that was perceived to be a threat. However in the Lowlands, southern France, and northern Italy-- where overpopulation, industrialization, wealth reserves, and travel were more prevalent--heresy told hold and became a potential threat to the Catholic Church's monopoly on Christianity. (Jeffrey Richards, SEX, DISSIDENCE AND DAMNATION--MINORITY GROUPS IN THE MIDDLE AGES, London and New York, 1990, p 70) At first, the typical response of the Church was to excommunicate heretics. The Church also sought to reform itself, issuing decrees at the Lateran Council of 1139 that forbade churchman to marry--and declaring the marriages of any clergymen who had already married to be null and void. By 1163, the Council of Tours stated that it was the clergy's duty to hunt down heretical sects, confiscate their possessions, and to imprison their leaders. In 1179 the Third Lateran Council under Pope Alexander, called on Catholic princes to use force.-- They gave those who rose up in arms against heretics the status and privileges of crusaders. In 1184, the Council of Verona under Pope Lucius III, issued legislation to deal with a wide range of heretical activities.--These included anyone who dared to preach without Papal or episcopal permission, or dared to believe doctrines not approved by the Church. Anyone who assisted heretics could be equally punished. Bishops were ordered to personally investigate all rumors of heretical activities. (Failure to do so could lead to charges of their own complicity with the heretics). Two major "heretical" sects that gained a strong, popular base (before being persecuted by the Catholic Church) were the Waldensians and the Cathars. Waldensians The Waldensian sect began in the tradition of earlier charismatic individuals who had renounced all their worldly possessions to live a spiritual live of poverty. In this, they modeled their actions after the apostles in the gospels. Their leader, Valdes, was a wealthy man who had given away all his riches after being inspired by the story of St. Alexis (who had done the same.) Valdes' followers, known as 'The Poor Men of Lyons' lived an absolute simple and poor lifestyle, and urged others to follow their example. The Waldensians rejected the Catholic Church as the sole authority of Christianity--believing its hierarchy to be wealthy and corrupt. In its place, they stressed the "priesthood of all believers". They preached the gospels--using the common language of the people, instead of Latin. (In this way, they challenged the Church's monopoly on interpreting God's will). They also rejected the rituals, singing, and services within the Church as materialistic. Services were therefore simple, and rituals were kept to a minimum. The Waldensians sect was very popular in many areas. It stressed egalitarian values--allowing even women, as well as men, to become preachers. The Passau Anonymous, associated with the Inquisition in the 1260's in Austria, described the Catholic view of Waldensian heretics as follows: "Heretics are to be recognized by their morals and their words. In moral behaviour they are composed and modest. They take no pride in their clothing, which is neither too rich nor too abject. They do not undertake any business because they seek to avoid lying and oaths and fraud, but they often make their living by the work of their hands, as craftsmen: their learned men are weavers and textile workers. They do not increase their riches, but are satisfied with necessities. They go neither to taverns, nor to shows, nor to any such vanities. They avoid anger. They are always working, teaching or learning." The Waldensians were savaging persecuted and many members of their community were burned to the stake for their beliefs. A chronicler during this time wrote how they "all showed an incredible stubbornness, even to death; they went joyfully to execution." By the fourteenth century, the fierce persecution came close to exterminating the sect. (The remnants of Waldensians that survived, helped form the base of the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century.) The Cathars The Cathars (from the Greek "katharos" meaning pure) were strong in the Lowlands, the Rhineland, and France. In the south of France, they became known as Albigensians--named after the French town of Albi, where they were numerous. The Cathars were influenced by Manichaneanism and ancient Christian gnosticism. They believed that every individual had a soul that was good, which was trapped inside an evil, physical body in a world controlled by evil forces. The universe was viewed as a cosmic perpetual war between the forces of light and the forces of darkness. Jesus had been sent by the good God to free souls that were trapped in this material world. As with gnostics, Cathars believed that all materialism was evil. Some associated the God of the Old Testament with the God of evil. The Cathars taught directly from the Bible, and stressed chastity, simplicity, and ascetic living. The basic ceremony of the Cathars was the consolamentum, or laying on hands during which the believer's soul was freed from his flesh, and thus made "pure" (catharized) and sinless. Members were encouraged to live a lifestyle that stressed spiritual purity (by foregoing for example meat, sex, and wealth). Not only did the Cathars question the Catholic church's control over Church doctrine, they specifically denied the sacraments of purgatory, mass for the dead, infant baptism, and transubstantiation. The Catholic church stepped up its opposition to the Cathars. Pope Innocent proclaimed a crusade against the Cathars, asking the French king to intercede to DESTROY the heretics in the south. As a reward for fighting in this proclaimed holy war, the Church offered indulgences for all those who responded to the pope's call. Few came to the pope's calling. Then in 1208, a Catholic priest was murdered by Cathars. Infuriated by the attack, the pope used the event to called on the Northerners of the Crusade to exterminate the Cathar threat once and for all. This time, the pope (Innocent III) promised the king and his noblemen, that they could confiscate the property taken away from the Cathar infidels. This time, thousands answered the pope's call, and descended on southern France to stamp out the infidels. The area of Beziers, France was successfully taken by the Catholics in 1209. When the local Catholic abbot was asked how to distinguish the "heretic" Cathars from "good" Catholics. The abbot reportedly replied, "Kill them all; for the Lord knoweth them that are His." The town was razed and much of the population was massacred. The pope received a report on the "miraculous" capture of Beziers and how the crusaders had killed some 15,000 heretics "showing mercy neither to order, nor age, nor sex." Barbarous savagery and cruelty characterized many sieges. Prisoners were cruelly tortured, and/or burned alive. In once case, when the castle of Brom was captured, one contemporary witness wrote how Catholic soldiers "tore out the eyes of more than 100 of the [Cathar] defenders, and cut off their noses, leaving only one eye to a single one of the crew, that he might lead all the rest to Cabaret in mockery of our enemies." (quoted in George H. Smith, ATHEISM, AYN RAND AND OTHER HERESIES, Prometheus Books, 1991, p 105 who in turn is quoting in Coulton, INQUISITION AND LIBERTY, P 103-4) Still the Albigensian Crusade dragged on for a number of years. The cruelty had the temporary effect of increasing Cathar resistance. Eventually after losing on the battleground, Cathar's went underground, although everywhere the went they were hounded down the Inquisition's secret police and executed. By 1326 C.E., the last known Cathar in France was burned to the stake. Eventually the Swiss and German Cathars were rounded up too, and the extermination of the Cathars was complete. The formation of the Franciscan and Dominican Orders The Humiliati sect, which believed in living a life of austerity, poverty, prayer, and fellowship--was only temporarily declared heretical. They were condemned at first--not for doctrinal heresy, but for preaching without permission from the Church. They were taken off the "heretical" list by Pope Innocent III in 1201. Pope Innocent III realized that new sects created an outlet for some religious individuals who were angry at the materialism of the Church and the large disparity between rich and the poor. Recognizing that the heretical evangelicals were meeting a spiritual need of the people, Pope Innocent III determined that it was acceptable to take up an oath of poverty and preach without being ordained, AS LONG AS THEY SWORE LOYALTY TO THE POPE AND TO CHURCH DOCTRINE! Therefore Innocent III legalized layman religious groups such as the Franciscans (founded by St Francis of Assisi) and Dominicans (founded by St Dominic). Originally these groups devoted their energy towards social work and preaching to the people-- as opposed to shutting themselves up in monasteries away from the real world. Though stressing a chaste, simple lifestyle, these religious orders thus became organized to be loyal to the Catholic Church and its orthodox doctrines. These new religious orders made a contribution to the intellectual climate of the times by stressing education--even staffing university faculties, and reconciling the rediscovered Graeco-Roman classics within Christian theology. Their ministry was frequently targeted to the new towns that had arisen during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Each generation produced legendary preachers who traveled throughout Europe preaching the Catholic message to thousands of followers. The sermons and their effects on the crowds produced great religious emotionalism. For example, when the legendary St. Vincent Ferrer preached on sin, hell, and the imminent Day of Judgment, it was said that members in the congregation were so filled with fear that large uncontrollable sobbing and fainting sometimes forced him to interrupt his sermons. The Foundation of the Inquisition Following the growth of heretical groups such as the Cathars, Catholic authorities determined to crack down on the population even further. In 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council was called under Pope Innocent III, which set down a grand plan for the re-Christianization of society. It was at this council, that the laws that would become the basis for the Inquisition were formally establish: * The populace was ordered to attend church and confess their sins to a priest. To guarantee the obedience of the flock, every church member was ordered to participate in confession and communion once a year at Christmas. * Written marriage certificates were ordered (to enforce celibacy among priests by outlawing "secret" marriages). * Regulations were set down for monitoring the level of education and proper conduct of priests. Clergymen were banned from hunting, falconry, drinking and excessive feasting, and from attending theatrical entertainment. * Individual preaching without Church permission was forbidden. * The Fourth Lateran Council instituted the Inquisition, whereby accused heretics could be arrested in secret trials, conducted by ecclesiastical tribunals. Special provisions were added to deal with heresy: * Heretics were to lose all their property and to be excommunicated from the Church. * All secular office holders were ordered to take an oath to exterminate heresy--upon penalty of being excommunicated themselves. * A crusading indulgence was granted to all men who took up arms to banish heretics. * There was a ban on all new religious orders Any "Deviate" Activity from Christianity was Closely Regulated. * Jews and Moslems were ordered to wear clothing that clearly identified them as non-Christian, such as badges or signs. Jews adopted a yellow felt circle for their badge. *Prostitutes and lepers were also ordered to wear distinctive clothing. Prostitutes wore a red chord, and lepers carried a rattle or bell. * The Third Lateran Council (1179) had already imposed stiff penalties on homosexuals. Homosexual activity was to be punished by deposition and imprisonment within the clerical ranks--and excommunication for everyone else. The Fourth Lateran Council upheld the previous council's rulings, and threatened life deposition for anyone who participated in any Church services after being suspended. One important doctrine was also formulated at the Fourth Lataran Council. The doctrine of transubstantiation was formally made a part of sacramental doctrine--and disbelief in this doctrine was pronounced heretical. The doctrine of transubstantiation stipulates that during the Eucharist when the priest announces "This is my body", that the bread and wine that has just been consumed has LITERALLY been transformed into the body and blood of Christ. (This doctrine is even today, part of the official creed of the Catholic Church.) Catholic Justification for the Use of Force Against Proclaimed Heretics Even prior to the Inquisition, the church was NOT known for its humanitarian concerns regarding convicted criminals. For example, in the tenth century C.E., St. Dunstan, the abbot of Glastonbury refused to conduct Mass until justice had been applied to some counterfeiters-- The "justice" consisted of chopping off the counterfeiters' hands. In the twelfth century, St. Bernard wrote on the case of a man who had been defeated in a duel--and was consequently blinded and had his goods confiscated. St. Bernard had no word of complaint about the man's being blinded--only that it wasn't fair that his immediate family should also lose their property rights in the confiscated goods. (Bainton, op cit. p 188) The worst possible crime (sin) one could commit was heresy! (Note, the word "heresy" originally meant "choosing for one's self"). Heresy was considered an affront to God Himself! It was therefore considered "worse" than counterfeiting money--because heresy "counterfeits" the truth of God. Likewise, it was worse than murder--as murder only destroys the body, but not the spirit. St. Augustine's writings were used initially to justify the creation of the Inquisition so that through coercion, this might lead SOME heretics back to truth and salvation. St. Augustine had used the analogy of amputating the rotten limb to save the body. This became interpreted to mean that the Church was the "body" and the heretic was the "rotten limb". Because the Church abhorred "the shedding of blood"--torture, followed by burning at the stake (a terribly painful death)-- became the preferred method of execution. The Church interpreted this though, as "an act of love" towards society, as this punishment might deter future heretics. Because the fear of pain and death might lead the heretic to recant his views (and thus save his immortal soul)-- this likewise was interpreted as a virtuous act toward the condemned. As with other good Catholic intellectuals, Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274 C.E.) rallied behind the Catholic Church to provide a religious moral justification for the use of force against heretics. Aquinas reasoned that the Church should maintain a DIFFERENT attitude between Christian heretics and non-Christian heretics (such as Jews and Moslems.) Non-Christian heretics should not be forced to convert to Christianity, as they have never voluntarily accepted the Christian faith. However, Christian heretics were a different matter, as they represented "those who profess the Christian faith, but corrupt its dogmas."(SUMMA THEOLOGICA, in GREAT BOOKS OF THE WESTERN WORLD (Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1952,) vol II, p. 438) Because at one time these Christian heretics had committed themselves to the true (ie Christian) God, then Aquinas maintained that they "should be submitted even to bodily compulsion [ie torture], that they may fulfill that they have promised, and hold what they at one time received." (Ibid. p 432) Aquinas went further than Augustine in dealing with heretics--recommending not only excommunication for Christian heretics, but DEATH: "Heretics deserve not only to be separated from the church by excommunication, but also to be severed from the world by death. For it is a much graver matter to corrupt the faith which quickens the soul, than to forge money, which supports temporal life. Therefore, if forgers of money and other evil-doers are condemned to death at once by the secular authority, much more reason is there for heretics, as soon as they are convicted of heresy, to be not only excommunicated, but even put to death." (Ibid, p 440) (Aquinas' arguments were used by Pope Paul III in 1542 in establishing the Holy Office of the Inquisition in Rome.) Transition to Torture The first tribunal of inquiry was established in 1229 by Pope Gregory IX at Toulouse, after the Albigensian Cathars had been crushed. By 1232, the Inquisition had became a law of the Empire. In Italy, the Emperor Frederick II, competed with the pope in devising NEW laws for detecting heretics. The emperor took the most zealous lead, as he saw in these laws an opportunity for declaring every political rebel against his rule--a religious "heretic". By 1233, the Inquisition was brought into the towns of Italy. There were a number of popular risings against the Inquisition in southern France, Germany, and Italy--attesting that there was popular opposition against the loss of freedom. With this precursor to the Inquisition, Europe's brief relatively "open" society was transformed into a closed, society--ruled by the strong hand of the pope and secular kings. (Note: The Inquisition never gained a strong foothold in England, which retained its jury system throughout most of medieval times. Still, even in England, the king wielded the power of law over his land.) When an area became infected with heresy, the tribunal system of the Inquisition set in. All women over the age of twelve, and all men over the age of fourteen were ordered to take an oath against heresy. It was declared a crime to possess a copy of the Bible (either the Old or New Testament) in ANY language-- even Latin. ( The only books that were allowed were the Psalter, the Breviary, and the Virgin's Book of Hours. Friedrich Heer, THE MEDIEVAL WORLD, transl by Janet Sondheimer, Penguin Books, 1961, p 215) In 1252, Pope Innocent IV decreed that heretics were thieves and murderers of the soul, and therefore deserved the same treatment as ordinary thieves and murderers. At first, Inquisitors were not allowed to torture. However, this changed by 1256, after the pope gave Inquisitors the authority to absolve each other for employing torture--and to grant dispensations to allow their colleagues to torture. Thus, torture became a justifiable means for stamping out heresy in the community. Religious heretics (whose views on sex were often more strict than that of the Church) were nevertheless accused of participating in religious orgies and in sodomy. Jews were said to be agents of the Devil, to have abnormally large sexual organs, and to be lustful after Christian virgins. Methods of Torture The early Inquisition employed six basic methods of torture: (1) the ordeal by fire, (2) the ordeal by water, (3) the strappado (or pulley torture), (4) the wheel, (5) the rack, and (6) the stivaletto. The ordeal by fire involved applying fat or grease to the feet area of the accused. The victim was then literally fried over a fire, until the proper confession was obtained. A fire screen was used to interrupt torture for a new round of questioning, and was also allowed during periods of fainting. The ordeal by water had different variations.--Typically a piece of cloth was placed down the throat of the accused. The nose was then blocked, and the mouth was forcibly propped upon by an iron ring to allow water to drop in slowly. This caused the victim to be slowly choked to death. The quantity of water applied is what distinguished the "ordinary" from the "extraordinary" ordeal.--In Italy, this was five litres for the ordinary, and ten litres for the extraordinary torture. The strappado, or pulley torture, involved tying the prisoner's hands behind his back, which were then further tied to a rope run overhead on a pulley. The prisoner was then hoisted into the air via his wrists, sometimes with iron weights attached to his feet. In this painful position, the prisoner was interrogated and sometimes further whipped. If the accused heretic still failed to confess, then he could be given the full strappado. This involved pulling up the accused on the rope until s/he reached the ceiling. The rope was then allowed to fall slack. Just before the prisoner would hit the floor, the rope was pulled taunt, causing terrible strain on the prisoner's body that could lead to agonizing dislocations. Other creative "devices" were built to torture heretics. The wheel torture tied the prisoner to a large wheel, which beat the accused with hammers or clubs as it revolved around. The rack torture placed the prisoner on a rack and "stretching" him through the use of rollers. The strivaletto form of torture involved crushing or splintering the prisoner's bones through the use of boards and rope which were driven by four wedges for the "ordinary" torture and eight wedges for the "extraordinary" torture. (Edward Burman, THE INQUISITION, HAMMER OF HERESY, Dorset Press, New York, 1984) Once a person was accused, there was almost certain punishment in some form. The accused was denied the right of defense, or the right to obtain legal counsel--and there was no appeal of a conviction. To confess immediately to the charges, could spare one the terrors of the torture chamber. The death sentence might be reduced--ie the heretic could receive a life-long confinement, be chained in a dungeon, or else was mercifully strangled before being burned. Mere contact with heresy, either knowingly or unknowingly, could receive lesser sentences of imprisonment, fines, beatings, or even religious pilgrimages. The clergy typically did not directly apply the torture or the executions. Instead the convicted heretic was always referred to the civil magistrate with a plea for mercy.--However it was understood that if mercy were ever given, then the magistrate would be excommunicated as a heretic himself. (Bainton, op cit, p 201) The whole system was based on superstition and religious hysteria. In the religious paranoia that followed, yesterday's saint could be interpreted as today's heretic. Anonymous informers were allowed, and this allowed accusations that were purely vindictive in nature by one's enemies. No European country escaped the tyranny that followed. In 1669, the Blocula trial in Scandinavia executed seventy people, including fifteen children. The Grand Inquisitor Torquemade applied the full force of the Inquisition in Spain. (See Chapter 10) The Inquisition was not abolished in Spain until 1834. The number of "heretics" executed by all ecclesiastical tribunals and the Inquisition in Europe in the Middle Ages has been estimated to have ranged somewhere from forty thousand to a hundred thousand. (Earlier estimates of millions are now thought to have been exaggerated.) It was during the social upheavals that resulted from the Church's policies on heretics, that the general belief in witches and demonism soared to new heights. The result was that large numbers of witches were actively tried and executed. Some historians have argued that it was NO coincidence that fanaticism against witchcraft attained hysterical levels during the SAME PERIOD--when the Church also determined to crack down on proclaimed "heretics". Belief in Witchcraft Belief in witchcraft, of course, predates Christianity. Since ancient times, there have been insane and eccentric people, many of whom were believed to have been possessed, or to have had powers over charms and incantations. Certain drugs-- such as plants from the nightshade family--were known which could give individuals a sensation of leaving the body and levitation. Ancient Rome had passed strict laws against the practice of magic. These laws were targeted especially against charms and incantations aimed at HARMING individuals--or attempts to divine how long the Emperor would live. "White" (or what was considered good magic) was left largely alone. Most early Christian fathers believed strongly in the existence of magic. St. Justin never doubted the stories of pagan miracles, attributing them to invisible demons, who were "Fallen Angels" from the first creation. St. Augustine also believed that there were sorcerers who were capable of performing magical feats--and which Christians and the saints were unable to repeat. Augustine believed that miracles were based on a foundation of magic. Relics and icons of Christian saints were believed to possess within them magical powers. Even the location of the Catholic Church was believed to hold a reserve of magic, from its proximity with Christendom's two famous saints--St. Peter and St. Paul. Still, when Christianity took hold of Western Europe, belief in WITCHES was not seriously considered by the majority of church officials. Instead, this was generally considered to be a leftover belief from paganism. St. Boniface (680-755) classified the belief in witches to be among the tricks of the Devil. St. Boniface strongly suggested that witchcraft was a DELUSION planted in the minds of the women by the Devil himself—-as opposed to any REAL POWER operating through women. Canon law during this time was comparatively lenient in its treatment of accused witches.--Indeed, it was held that they were the Devil's VICTIMS, as opposed to voluntary partners in crime with the Devil. The dramatic shift in the Church's position occurred between the 12th and 15th centuries--at which time the Church now declared witches to be en evil force operating within society. This movement was led by Scholastic intellectuals who perceived the world in dualistic terms of good and evil. St. Thomas Aquinas found the need to presume the existence of a powerful Devil in his SUMMA THEOLOGICA. He also popularized the concept that individuals could make a pact directly with the Devil or his demons. (NOTE: The relevant portion of Aquinas' writings on this reads: "Thus the so-called ASTRONOMICAL images also owe their efficacy to diabolical intervention. This is indicated by the fact that on these it is necessary to inscribe CHARACTERS which by nature perform no operation: in fact the figure is never the principle of a natural operation. But between ASTRONOMICAL and necromantic images there is a difference, that in these latter there are explicit invocations and appearances of the Demon--and they therefore enter in pacts expressly made with the Devil, while in the others such appearances come from the symbols of certain figures, or characters, from merely tacit pacts. "The dominion of His Divine Majesty, to which demons are also subject, implies that God may use them as he wishes. On the other hand, man has not received dominion over the demons, to use them as he wishes: but he must engage in declared war with them. Thus it is in no way licit for man to invoke aid from demons with either tacit or explicit agreements." (Thomas Aquinas, SUMMA THEOLOGICA, II-II, 43, 7 ad 3.) Aquinas' writings were later cited as proof of the existence of witches who had made pacts with the Devil himself. Renouncing Christ--and in swearing loyalty to the Devil--the witch even submitted to sexual intercourse with him. It was reasoned, that heretics and other evildoers placed themselves under Satan's commands by undermining God's authorities on earth--ie the Church. In 1484, two Dominican friars, Heinrich Kraemer and Johann Sprenger, convinced Pope Innocent VIII to issue a bull allowing for the extermination of witches in Germany. Two years later, they published the MALLEUS MALEFICARUM (THE WITCH'S HAMMER) which became the authoritative encyclopedia on the subject of witches during the centuries to come. (The attitude of this document towards women in general is discussed in Section VI, Chapter 9). During this time, witches were accused of causing sudden natural catastrophes--storms, floods, destruction of crops and livestock, famine, epidemics, along with illnesses, death, and infertility. Midwives for example, could be accused of witchcraft if there was a stillborn birth. Older, eccentric women or mentally ill women, were also accused of being witches. Was Witchcraft a REAL phenomenon? Some historians believe that witchcraft in the Middle Ages was a REAL phenomenon.-- They argued that Christianity had absorbed a good number of pagan cults including holy days and festivals--even transforming some pagan gods into saints. The horned and hoofed devil from the medieval ages, could thus be linked to the ancient Greek god Pan, or the Celtic Cernunnos. According to this theory, the Catholic Church sanctioned the belief in some of these pagan rites--leading to the development in Christian doctrine of belief in holy relics and sacraments. Some pagan practices--in particular the fertility cults-- were NOT merged into Christianity. These then later evolved into Devil worshipping sects. (These historians often viewed paganism as similar to demon worship to begin with--which thus explained the transition.) On the other hand, other modern historians have shown that (prior to the ninth century) most Christian intellectuals held that witchcraft was not a real phenomenon. Secondly, they note that it was only in the aftermath of the heresy trials, that Catholic intellectuals popularized the belief in witches within medieval society. THESE HISTORIANS MAINTAIN THAT THIS WAS NO MERE COINCIDENCE. Norman Cohn strongly argued for this theory, in his book EUROPE'S INNER DEMONS (1975). Cohn did agree that the belief in magic predates Christian times. For example since Roman times, old tales existed which told of women who could change themselves into birds and fly during the night, creating great mischief. There were also stories that some peasants left out food and drink, for protection against these female spirits of the night. However, Cohn demonstrated that the INCREASED interest in witchcraft occurred primarily in the stronghold territories of heretics--that is, in France, the Low Countries, northern Italy, and the Rhineland. He noted that the allegations made by the Church against heretics practicing witchcraft were essentially the SAME as those made by the early pagans against Christians. That is, allegations of orgies, incest, cannibalism, and infanticide had been hurled at early Christians by Roman pagans. When Cohn researched Catholic accusations of witchcraft aimed at dissident groups, he found that they almost always listed the SAME accusations--as if the Church had just copied the same text in attacking one dissident group to the next. Christian intellectuals and propagandists then took these accusations--and creatively interwove them into a general theme of the Devil conducting sexual orgies with his witch followers. According to Cohn, devil-worshipping witches were NOT real, but were invented through the imaginative and paranoid delusions of a group of celibate clergymen and writers--whose fear of sex lead them to demonize women in general. One does not have to look far for proof of this: For The official manual used by Church Inquisitors for trying witches, "MALLEUS MALEFICARUM", claimed that: "All witchcraft comes from carnal lust, which is in women insatiable." and "Whatever is done for the safety of the State is merciful." The MALLEUS MALEFICARUM described how witches blighted crops, ate children, and caused disease through their evil spells. During these witch trials, by some estimates, somewhere between forty and a hundred thousand innocent victims (primarily women) were pronounced witches and tortured and executed-- often by being burned alive at the stake. Cohn's studies convinced him that many of the groups charged with conducting Devil-worshipping orgies, were in fact strictly religious puritans, who practiced a chaste, celibate lifestyle. Because their Catholic accusers viewed their unorthodox religious beliefs with such horror, they believed that these deviants MUST somehow be in league with the devil-- and therefore be involved in his sexual orgies. According to Cohn, "proof" was typically obtained against heretical sects such as the Waldensians and Cathars--by torturing members into "confessing" their complicity with Satanic orgies. Some Accused Witches NOT "Heretics" In the hysteria of the times, obviously many of the "witches" tried were NOT heretics. The Inquisition never came to England for example--yet there were still witch-hunts. Still, women were held to more easily succumb to the evil of the Devil, than men. In England, the vast majority of accused witches were elderly women. Eccentric or mentally ill patients sometimes interpreted their delusions as being from the devil--and would in turn, be accused of witchcraft and burned. (See Section VIII, Chapter 5 for a discussion of mental disorders). In the superstition and hysteria of the times, some of these women actually interpreted ordinary events, as being manifestations of the Devil. Probably the most famous person who was burned as a witch was Joan of Ark (d. 1431). Since the age of thirteen, Joan had heard "voices from heaven" and experienced visions. Believing herself chosen by God, Joan had victoriously led the French people into battle to free them from the English. She was later captured and sentenced as a witch, by a court strongly influenced by the English. While the French were convinced that Joan of Ark was a saint, the English were just as convinced that she was aided by the dark powers of Satan. Convicted of witchcraft, Joan was burned at the stake on May 14, 1431. (Joan of Ark wasn't cannonized as a saint-- until 1920 by Pope Benedict XV Technically speaking, Joan cannot be considered a MARTYRED saint, because her death was carried out by a formal court of the Catholic Church. That is, one is not allowed to be considered a martyr if their death was ordered by officials within the Catholic Church itself.) (Charles Panati, PANATI'S EXTRAORDINARY ENDINGS OF PRACTICALLY EVERYTHING AND EVERYBODY, p 358) Cold Winters and Failed Harvests Between 1250 and 1300, European weather had turned colder and wetter. Repeated crop failures, combined with soil exhaustion and over-cultivation, had made famine a way of life. The population, which had been increasing rapidly until this time, declined in the 1290's to 1340's. Around 1260, there was another wave of millenarianism, where it was believed that the End, once again, was near. This took its most dramatic form in appearance throughout Italy and central Europe. Religious fanatics known as Flagellants, marched from town to town, publicly beating themselves with knotted whips and chains for hours, to imitate Christ and thus atone for society's sins. When the Second Coming failed to materialize, the movement dwindled down, only to resurface again after the appearance of the Black Plague. Pope Clement VI banned the movement in 1349, believing them to challenge the Church's monopoly on granting salvation to its members. Black Plague Prior to the outbreak of plague, Europe had remained relatively plague-free for centuries. In 1347-9, Europe was hit with the bubonic plague (so named because of the dark areas formed under the skin from the minute hemorrhaging.) Some historians believe that the fanaticism against witchcraft, led many to also kill cats-- which were believed to be helpmates of witches. Thus the rats which harbored the flea carrying the plague bacillus multiplied greatly during this time--with the cat population down. Europe was hit with a succession of plagues. In 1361-2, a second plague hit that wiped out some ten to twenty per cent of the population. This became known as the "Boys" Plague, because of the high proportion of young men that died. In 1369, a third plague killed another ten to fifteen percent of the population. Further plagues recurred in cycles of every five to ten years. Weakened by the plague, many other people died from other diseases--smallpox, malaria, and dysentery. In some areas, there was not enough people who survived to bury the dead. Some people responded to the massive deaths and destruction by outright panic, others fell into a deep despair. Some were determined to spend their last days indulging in all-out revelry. However, many turned even more strongly towards religion and piety. Many people believed that the plague was a sure sign that the End of the World was near.--For the only way people could make sense of their misery was to believe that God Himself had ordained the plague. This view can be seen in the writings of the Sienese chronicler Agnolo di Tura de Grasso, who wrote that "So many died, that all believed it was the end of the world." This theme can be seen again in the famous opening lines of Giovanni Boccaccio's DECAMERON-- "In the year of Our Lord 1348, there happened . . . a most terrible plague, which was sent from God as a just punishment for our sins". According to the Italian author Agnioli di Tura, "I buried with my own hands five of my children in a single grave. No bell. No tears. This is the end of the world." After waves of plague, the processions of flagellants, (who had become popular again), would travel from town to town--savagely and bloodily beating themselves in imitation of Christ-- in order to appease God's great wrath on the world. When it was observed that even a cough or sneeze could spread the plague, the sick were frequently quarantined and abandoned. Healthy parents abandoned their children, after the first symptoms began. And those doctors and priests who stayed to treat the sick, tended to be among those who died off first. The religious suffered even higher casualty rates than average, because they often stayed to treat the sick--sometimes even after doctors had quit making calls. It has been estimated that among parish priests, the death rate reached as high as forty five percent, and within secluded monasteries as many as fifty one percent succumbed to the plague. Conditions grew so bad that it later became next to impossible to find a priest to administer the last rites. Rome responded with emergency regulations that relaxed the requirement to confess to a priest. They allowed the dying to confess out loud, or to anyone who would listen-- "even to a woman" (the later showing how desperate the Church had become!) In 1348, Pope Clement VI, declared a "Holy Year", and encouraged all faithful Christians to undertake a pilgrimage to Rome. To allay the fears of the faithful, the pope promised, in advance, absolution of sins to anyone who might die en route to Rome. Their souls would not stop at purgatory, but gain immediate entrance into heaven itself. By Easter, over a million pilgrims had responded to the pilgrimage. The result, however, (in "physical" terms) was a disaster. Only ten percent were to survive the trip back home. The pope himself survived the plague, probably because he left Rome and secluded himself in Avignon, France, during the height of the plague. Still, many priests died in the ordeal-- and others found it necessary to flee their parishes. Many intellectuals died and some twenty universities were forced to close down during the period. As the plague wore on, some people came to view the scourge as the result of the Devil, instead of from God. In searching for scapegoats, Jews were frequently placed on trial and executed for "poisoning" wells. Their synagogues and ghettos were burned--this, despite statements from Pope Clement VI that the Jews were innocent. (It appears that some nobles took advantage of some of the hatred and hysteria to "wipe off" their personal debts to Jewish creditors, and urged the public to rise up and kill all the Jews off.) By 1430, some twenty five million people had died, and the population was only one fourth to one half of what it had been in 1290. (It did not recover its thirteenth century level until the mid-sixteenth century.) However, with the plague over, fewer people translated into better economic conditions for the survivors. Survivors took over the land and property of those who had died. Because labor was scarce, workers could demand higher wages and better working conditions. By 1450, even the working poor might now have a fireplace in their home--with such possessions as a dish and a chair. The public suddenly demanded luxuries as never before--especially in terms of dress. (Kings and noblemen became so shocked by the presumption of the common people in terms of dress and living style, that some legislation was passed to keep the poor in their place.) (James Burke, CONNECTIONS, MacMillan London, Limited, 1978.) The Church Clashes with Secular Kings and Princes As we have seen, in the early ninth century, the Church determined it needed a secular king who would serve as her champion. As a result, the office of emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was re-instituted through the crowning of Charlemagne by the pope on Christmas day in 800 C.E. In theory, Christian society was supposed to be ruled through a harmonious partnership between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Emperor. However, in reality, there were rifts and battles within the Holy Roman Empire after the death of Charlemagne. Even the office of the Papacy had too often degenerated into a corrupt power play between rival noble families--whose battles to get their members elected pope, led to a succession of scandals and violent overthrows. As the Church tried to extend its influence into the secular world, they met with increased opposition from local princes, who had their own personal goals and agendas. In countries such as England, which was geographically situated far away from Rome, nationalism became a strong force, in opposition to papal authority. As nationalism became a new force in Europe--especially in France and England-- the reality was for the Holy Roman Emperor to have powers only in Germany and northern Italy. Thus by the eleventh century, clearly recognizable national states had formed--bringing with it the stabilization of borders, a centralized court and financial system, and a shift in loyalty from religious organizations to the monarchy itself. In 1330, gunpowder was used for the first time in the West. With the further development of the use of the cannon, it was now possible for a powerful king to break down what had earlier been impregnable castle walls of feudal lords, in order to enforce his edicts. In 1336, largely nationalistic forces had started the Hundred Years War. Seventy Years of The Great Papal Schism In 1303, a bitter feud had developed between King Philip the Fair of France and Pope Boniface. (This had begun over resentment of large Church revenues leaving France for Rome.) Eventually, King Philip succeeded in capturing the pope at his summer residence in northern Italy. The pope died shortly afterwards. For roughly the next seventy years (1309 to 1377 C.E.), the new popes were appointed among French clerics--and their residence was NOT in Rome, but in Avignon, France. During this time, the Papacy was basically a pawn of French secular rulers. German princes, opposed to the power of their French rivals, pushed for a return of the papacy to Rome. In 1377, Pope Gregory XI formally moved back from Avignon to Rome. The next year, Urban VI, an Italian, was elected Pope. French cardinals, however, declared the election to be invalid because of outside political pressures placed on the vote. Accordingly, the French cardinals elected their own Pope-- Clement VII, who again took up residence in Avignon. During this period, there were TWO Popes--each claiming to be the REAL pope, and each supported in turn by their own European states. This period became known as the "Great Schism". Both popes claimed authority to make decisions on Catholic doctrine. Both popes excommunicated the other as the "Antichrist" and accused the other of destroying Christendom. Both popes refused to abdicate. For the next forty years, there was uncertainty by some people--over which pope possessed REAL papal authority! In 1409, cardinals from both sides, met at the Council of Pisa to try to seek a solution to the schism. They elected a new pope-- Alexander V. However, a serious problem emerged.--Both of the two deposed popes refused to step down. Now there was THREE men claiming to be the Pope! In desperation in 1417, the Council of Constance deposed all three rival Popes and unanimously elected Pope Martin V. This time the Great Schism was over-- but not without the papacy suffering a serious blow to its credibility and prestige. William of Ockham's "Razor" William of Ockham (1285-1347) was one of the most controversial and influential philosophers of his time. He is sometimes considered the founder of Nominalism instead of Aristotle, because of his strong REJECTION of Platonist idealism known as Realism. Realism, it will be recalled, purports that "real" understanding comes only through knowledge of abstract ideals. William of Ockham disagreed. According to William, God did not use preconceived, abstract ideas in His physical creations. Thus, it followed, that there is no point in using ONLY reason or any other abstract manner to explore truth! To William, all we can every really know, is that which we EXPERIENCE in the physical world. We are justified in positing the existence of the "unobservable" ONLY if this is necessary in order to explain other phenomenon that we CAN observe with our senses. Anything else is merely a game with words. For example, we know that through our own personal experience, Socrates and Plato were both human. But, it is NOT necessary to refer to an abstract idea called "humanity" to understand this! People could distinguish a human from a finback whale, long before Plato invented his abstract metaphysical system. We have no proof that "humanity" exists, only that individual humans exist. The same is true of finback whales. Only individual finback whales can be shown to exist, not the "concept of finback whaleness." Knowledge of abstract qualities is therefore a creation of human beings-- as opposed to an external reality outside our human senses. The same principle applies to knowledge of God. We can only know God by personal experience and feeling. Whenever we try to construct an abstract universal idea on the nature of God, we are merely projecting our own human conceptions on what he MIGHT be like, as opposed to coming closer to obtaining a true understanding of His inscrutable Will. Knowledge of God can only be obtained through God's gift of grace--as opposed to logical exercises. William of Ockham's famous "Razor" principle states that the simplest explanation that accords with the evidence is usually the best solution--as opposed to the abstract constructs of earlier philosophers. (The sixteenth century Galileo later invoked Ockham's razor in arguing that the earth did not appear to be located at the center of the universe. See Chapter 12.) A devout Franciscan, he nevertheless came into conflict with the pope at Avignon. The reason--he sympathized with the Spirituals, an offshoot of the Franciscan order, who took their vows of poverty very seriously--insisting that they were following the example of Jesus and his Apostles. The pope, John XXII, held that Jesus and his apostles were NOT opposed to the possession of wealth and poverty. In a compromise agreement, the pope agreed to take formal ownership of the property of the order. However, many members defied papal authority, and Ockham sympathized with them. As a result, Ockham was excommunicated in 1328. Fortunately, he and others were able to find protection at the court of the Holy Roman Emperor Louis of Bavaria (who had been earlier excommunicated in 1324). The latter found Ockham's arguments useful in justifying his new taxation policy on church property. William argued that Pope John XXII at Avignon had no real authority over Christians, who were living in accordance to the gospels and to natural law. (Because of his views, some consider William of Ockham to have been a forerunner of Martin Luther). The Catholics later placed Ockham's writings on their list of forbidden books. The Defeat of the Byzantine Empire by the Moslem Turks The Byzantine Empire had never fully recovered from its sacking by the Fourth Crusade. Over the next centuries it had slipped more and more into decline. Its capital at Constantinople had survived repeated earlier attempts by the Moslems, largely because its natural geographic location was ideal for defending against attackers--and its ancient fortifications had been engineered with this in mind. However, the Byzantine Empire had become so weakened over the centuries, that the defeat by Islamic Arabs appeared likely. By 1274, the Byzantine emperor Michael Paleologos became so desperate, that he appealed to Rome for help. Pope Gregory X agreed to help, but only upon condition that the Greek Byzantines accept the Western doctrine of the Trinity (ie filioque). The Byzantine emperor agreed. However his decision proved to be so unpopular with his people, that he had to violently put down a revolt by the Byzantine clergy and public following his decision. In the process, he even imprisoned and blinded four of his own relatives. Monks were tortured and killed--some of them purportedly buried alive. After the emperor Michael died some ten years later, he was branded as a heretic, and Greek orthodoxy was fully restored (with filioque thrown out). In 1439, with the threat of the Turks at the gates of Constantinople, the current Byzantine emperor again agreed to submit to the Pope--who persisted in the insertion of the Doctrine of the Trinity into their Creed. However the people refused to rally behind the alliance. The Creed of the Trinity was finally proclaimed in the congregation of the church of St. Sophia in 1452-- six months before the Turks arrived at the gates of Constantinople. Still, the West sent no armies to fight the Turkish Moslems. When the Turkish sultan entered triumphantly into the city on May 29, 1453, he found that the fabled city had experienced such a dramatic decline over the centuries, that much of the city was already stripped and lying in ruins. Over the centuries, poverty had taken its toll on the maintenance of Constantinople.-- The defending soldiers were even afraid to mount canons on its outer walls, for fear that they could not withstand the vibrations from firing them. The Byzantine emperor was killed in the fighting, and some 60,000 people were taken into captivity and slavery. The libraries were plundered in the process-- some of the manuscripts were eventually sold off to Greeks, who brought them with them to Western Europe. Many Byzantine scholars had left long before the arrival of the Turks in 1453. By 1400, Greek monks were teaching in Florence, Italy and had brought some of their Byzantine books with them. In fact, when the last of the Byzantine emperors traveled to the West to ask for help, their entourage of scholars sometimes made the decision to stay in the West. Some modern historians believe the kernel of knowledge that was planted from this interchange with Byzantine Greek scholars, and the writings they brought with them--was the spark that helped kicked off the Renaissance in Italy. Assessment of the Quality of Life in Catholic Europe During "Medieval" Times Of course, Medieval times in Western Europe spanned some one thousand years and encompassed a large area. Still in general certain characterizations of this period can be made--especially during the early period of the Middle Ages (ie before 800 C.E.) Generally-speaking, for the majority of people, medieval society was characterized by hunger, poverty and disease. Food was limited -- consisting primarily of brown and black bread, cheese and porridge, a few vegetables in season, and salted meats which were often badly cured. When crops failed, famines and starvation were common. A large portion of the population suffered from what we know today to be vitamin-deficient diseases-- which caused blindness, goiter, bone deformations that created hunchbacks, paralytics and cripples. Because of poor diets and sanitation, illness and disease were also prevalent. Tuberculosis along with skin ailments--ranging from abscesses, scrofula, tumors, and eczema were common. Lepers constituted a serious problem, and were segregated on the outskirts of villages and cities. Wars were also a common threat. During the Middle Ages, the negative attitude that had developed in the West towards cleanliness and daily comfort, had carried over into the daily lives of the people. Cleanliness and personal hygiene were not considered important. Baths were rare--as these were considered worldly luxuries. Food was typically eaten with the finger. There were knives to cut food, but no forks. Leftovers were thrown on the floor, to be eaten by the dogs or cats. Garbage was usually dumped directly on the street, where it either rotted away or was eaten by local hogs that roamed freely in the streets. There was no garbage collection or sewage treatment. Indeed, it was not until the later discovery of bacteria and its connection with disease and infection, that a "scientific" basis was given for returning to cleanliness. (The first regulation against allowing swine to wander freely on the streets was issued in London in 1281). Even conditions of living for the wealthy were relatively crude and uncomfortable by today's standards. Wooden houses and stone castles were often cold and dreary places. Rooms were dark and damp. Until the revival of trade with the Orient when carpets began to be purchased, floors were typically covered with rushes or straw. A new layer would be replaced from time to time, as the old rotted away from food, dirt, or the feces from animals. There was no idealism of the working poor, as would occur following the emergence of the Romantic Movement in the eighteenth century. The vast majority of the people were peasants--who were illiterate and grossly superstitious. The middle and upper class generally held peasants in contempt--believing them to be dull-witted, shifty, cruel, and ugly-- and thus deserving of their dejected state. Contemporary commentators were scornful of the lower classes--for example, saying they were "born of ass's dung", and how the devil would not want them in hell because they "smelled too badly." (G.G. Coulton, THE MEDIEVAL VILLIAGE, as quoted by Burns, WESTERN CIVILIZATIONS, p 263). As we have seen, medical treatments were based largely on superstition, and a person would likely fare better without being treated by a physician. Infant mortalities were extremely high during the Middle Ages due to poor, unsanitary living conditions. In addition, because of the large number of women who died from complications arising from childbirth, there was a higher proportion of men than women. The average life expectancy for most people during the Middle Ages was in the 30s-40s (compared to the 60s today). Some people, of course, lived as long then as they do today. That is, it has been estimated that roughly ten percent of the population did survive the diseases, wars, and famines, to live into a ripe old age.