Assessment of the Middle Ages, or Were Medieval Times REALLY a "Dark Age"? From the times of the Renaissance to modern times, there has been strong disagreement among historians and scholars as to the "true" significance of the Middle Ages in Western Europe. Renaissance writers viewed the Middle Ages as a time of Gothic barbarism. During the Age of Reason in the eighteenth century, (ie the "Enlightenment"), writers such as Voltaire dubbed the Middle Ages as an "Age of Faith"--by which was meant an "Age of Superstition". In the Romantic age, which was largely a reaction to the rationalism of the Age of Reason, many writers went to the other extreme. The Middle Ages portrayed by Romantics was one of romantic chivalry-- with knights in shining armor, damsels in distress, castles, tournaments, and lively and merrymaking feasts. Even in modern times, some historians have challenged the idea of calling the thousand year medieval period a "Dark" Age. Admittedly, they agree that this was a "DIFFERENT" era than the Graeco-Roman civilization that proceeded it. But, they will argue, "different" does not necessarily imply "worse" or "dark". After all, everything is relative! Since science and technology are so much more ADVANCED in today's age than in ancient Greek times--would this not imply that the ancient Greek civilization was ALSO a "DARK" time, when compared with today's society? One obvious response is that, the Middle Ages also represented a period of time when human striving and knowledge (and therefore civilization) REGRESSED as opposed to progressed! During these times, virtually ALL new learning in the arts and sciences came to a standstill! The striving for NEW knowledge and understanding was denounced and proclaimed sinful. Indeed there was a REGRESSION in Western Europe, as many of the scholarly writings on the sciences were lost. Perhaps the most dramatic example of this can be seen in the area of medicine. For example, in the fourth century B.C. Hippocrates, (revered today as the "Father of Medicine") looked largely toward NATURAL causes for diseases (including mental illnesses)--as opposed to divine, supernatural causes. During the Middle Ages, the belief in natural causes for diseases and illnesses was largely abandoned. As a result, superstition--such as belief in witches and evil demons, was seen as the "cause" of virtually all afflictions. According to Howard W. Haggard, associate professor of Applied Physiology at Yale University, "From the fall of the Roman Empire until beyond the thirteenth century-- nearly a thousand years--there is no advance in medical science to record in Western Europe." (Haggard, op. cit., p 164) Medicine did not progress again, until the philosophy, or "mindset" of this age had changed. Indeed, first it had to rediscover that which had been lost. It was this drastic DOWNWARD DIRECTION of Western knowledge in the sciences and the arts that make these times a "Dark Age"! William Bark, author of the book ORIGINS OF THE MEDIEVAL WORLD (and used by this author as a reference in the section on the Middle Ages) strongly disagrees with this assessment! According to Bark, scientific reaction against the Middle Ages is in fact "emotional" in nature: "First, there [are] feelings of revulsion against the ignorance and superstition allegedly fostered by an authoritarian Church, which were bad because they retarded the advancement of science, a term taken by natural scientists to mean primarily and almost exclusively knowledge of nature. It is a peculiarity of the holders of this view that they regard with great contempt the errors and blindness and blunders of men before roughly the time of Galileo, but are more tolerant of mistakes made nearer their own time. Second, there has been criticism along more or less medical lines, directed chiefly against the medieval lack of sanitation, general poor health, and susceptibility to disease. To the proponents of this view the Middle Ages were filthy by choice." (William Carroll Bark, ORIGINS OF THE MEDIEVAL WORLD, Stanford University Press, Stanford, California 1958 p6) Scientists are indeed more "tolerant of mistakes"--but would argue that this is a POSITIVE instead of a NEGATIVE aspect of science. Scientists largely recognize that their models and equations are an "approximation" of the natural world. One of the hallmarks of science is the fact that over time, it adapts itself according to new information (as opposed to demanding that the "old" ways be used) in an effort to IMPROVE knowledge and understanding. The point is that the scientific outlook of looking for "natural" causes was denigrated during the Dark Ages as sinful and a distraction from one's focus of an afterlife in heaven. The Catholic Church in the West adopted the Platonic view of the world that distrusted our senses in explaining the world around us-- preferring instead faith and revelation. Indeed, questioning the Orthodox, or "correct" view (as presented by revered Church fathers such as St. Augustine) was proclaimed to be a sin against God. As St. Augustine warned: "Cursed is everyone who places his hope in man." This explains why the Catholic Church was reluctant to establish new schools of secular instruction, and only copied primarily RELIGIOUS works. Secular writings, such as those of Aristotle, became lost in the West for many centuries. Bark's second point is curious as he did not spend time refuting it: That is, DURING MEDIEVAL TIMES, people DID largely choose to be, as he put it "filthy". Of course, this view DID change centuries later, AFTER the influence of the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment. Indeed, the phrase "cleanliness is near akin to godliness" is attributed to the Protestant theologian John Wesley! But again, this was centuries AFTER the time period of the Middle Ages. Did Western Orthodox (i.e. Catholic) Christianity Cause or Accelerate the Period of the Dark Ages in Europe? During the fifth century C.E., pagans (who were now in the minority) charged that it was Christianity that had CAUSED the collapse of the Roman empire, and with it, all of Roman civilization. Christians, in turn, countered that the Roman empire was already declining by the third century C.E., when it was still under the control of pagans. The implication was that the SAME thing would have happened under pagan rule! Actually, there were some truth to what both groups were saying! Pagan Roman emperors, especially around the latter third century C.E., had turned the empire into a military state which was characterized by intrigue, corruption and violent succession wars. With the assertion of Diocletian in 284 C.E., the government of Rome had clearly become an absolute sovereign over the populace. The economy had declined as Italy suffered an unfavorable trade balance, and financed this by letting the currency inflate as opposed to encouraging manufacturing for export. Neo-Platonism and the mystery religions encouraged the pessimistic attitude that this life did not really matter--that it was the NEXT life where one should focus one's thoughts and efforts. Although this made for creative spiritual literature, this attitude had much to do with increased ignorance, superstition, and insensitivity towards barbarism so far as THIS life was concerned. (See Edward McNall Burns, WESTERN CIVILIZATION, Their History and Their Culture, 3rd edition, W.W. Norton & Company, Inc, 1949, pp 190-1) Of course, when the Orthodox Christians came into power, these problems not only continued, but became worse. As we have seen, Constantine ruled (as did Diocletian) as an absolute autocrat. During his reign and that of his successors, even more laws were imposed to bind the common people ever tighter to the land to become serfs--whose status was hereditary. Beginning with Constantine, Orthodox Christians formed a partnership with the State, and used their position of power, to impose their doctrines on the rest of the population. Conservative Orthodox leaders bragged to Constantine how their doctrines would help make the populace more meek and resigned to their status in life. Persecuting pagans, Jews, and heretical Christians provided scapegoats to the common people to divert attention from the worsening social and political order. Believers were taught that it was a virtue to be passive against the injustices they saw around them. As for those segments of the population that resisted- which included all "other" Christians sects that were not Orthodox, Jews, and pagans-these were proclaimed "heretical" and their art and literature destroyed. Attacks on their temples and leaders escalated, almost certainly leading to even MORE internal disruption and demoralization within Roman society. When secular schools did reopen centuries later under Charlemagne (9th century C.E.), his advisors had to carefully explain at first why the new learning was NOT "sinful". The new education was justified by focusing primarily on theological subjects. It was not until Arab translations of the ancient Greek writings became introduced in the twelfth century, and the rediscovery of the writings of Aristotle became integrated into Catholic Christian doctrine, that the mindset changed whereby "natural" causes (as opposed to the supernatural) were again used to explain the world. Downplaying the INTERNAL disruptions as Causes of the Fall of the Roman Empire Most historians greatly downplay the Orthodox Church's intoleration and internal persecutions within Roman society in the century before the Fall of Rome. After obtaining official status with the emperor Constantine, one of the first steps the Orthodox church took was too outlaw all other Christian sects as heretical at the Council of Nicea(325 C.E.): "If any treatise composed by Arius is discovered, let it be consigned to the flames... [and] if anyone shall be caught concealing a book by Arius, and does not instantly bring it out and burn it, the penalty shall be death; the criminal shall suffer punishment immediately after conviction." Other non-Orthodox Christian sects were also ordered to abandon their "tissue of lies and vanities, with what destructive and venomous errors, your doctrines are inextricably woven" and hand over immediately all their churches to the catholic church.) (See chapter 2 for citations.) Jews were persecuted but allowed to live. St. Augustine had argued Jews had a role to play as their Old Testament served as a testimony to the predictions of Jesus During these persecutions against heretical Christians, no one seriously believed Rome would ever fall a century later. If anything, these was viewed as "strengthening society" by demanding only the true "Christian" religion be worshipped. In 378 AD, the Roman army under the Christian emperor Valens lost a major battle in Adrianople, Turkey against the Goths. The significance of this battle was that it proved the Christian Roman Empire was not invincible against barbarian invaders. During the next decade, the Emperor Theodosius supported Christian purges against the pagans. There was clearly a conservative mood to purge Roman society of its remaining heretics. After 394 C.E., the Catholic faith was proclaimed by law, and heresy was viewed as seriously as treason. Although there were still some pagans that clung onto their ancient religions, pagan sacrifices and prayers were strictly prohibited. Christian mobs stepped up attacks destroying pagan temples. Pagans complained of being harassed constantly, and many moved or eventually converted. (Note: Paganism was not directly outlawed until the 530's by edict of the Emperor Justinian. The penalty for participating in pagan cults was death.) This meant Christian leaders did NOT undergo these purges for the purpose of uniting the country for the long term against invading armies. If anything, these internal purges could only have demoralized segments of Roman population making it even more vulnerable to attack. When Rome fell only decades later to the invaders, Orthodox Christians WERE SHOCKED AND ASKED HOW GOD COULD HAVE LET THIS HAPPEN? But What of the Impact of the Barbarian Invasions? Today, historians tend to attribute EXTERNAL causes to the Dark Ages-- specifically the barbarian invasions. According to this picture, vicious onslaughts by barbarian invaders in western Europe, led civilized towns and cities to band together into feudalist communities for protection. Peasants, in exchange for this security, WILLINGLY gave up their individual freedom to the new feudal lords. But instead, we have seen how it was the Roman emperors themselves who instituted serfdom. Starting around the second century C.E., large number of slaves on large Roman estates began to be converted into serfs. This feudalization of society grew over time. The emperor Constantine declared that peasants and their children were bound to the land as serfs. High and corrupt taxation laws forced small landowners to sell their land and themselves (and hence their descendents) into serfdom after a bad harvest. Salvian, a priest of Marseilles, France (c 440 C.E.) wrote passionately regarding how many in the Roman populace were forced into a state of slave- tenants on large feudal estates. According to Salvian, in such a corrupt system, ordinary men would no longer have any loyalty to Roman rule, but would actually prefer to live under the barbarians who treated them better than their Roman leaders (V, 36-7). Thus, instead of standing up to defeat the barbarians, frequently there was no effective resistance given against the invading barbarians. (VI, 80) For whatever reasons, the barbarians did easily defeat the Roman armies, even though they were fewer in number and had less resources than the now formally Christianized Roman society. After their arrival (especially in southern Europe), the invaders did NOT seek to IMPOSE their own cultures on the Roman territories they conquered. Instead, many of these barbarian tribes were already Christianized and very respectful of Roman culture. As such, there was more destruction aimed at pagan property, with Churches often spared. Thus if invading barbarians were the cause of the demise of the Greco- Roman culture, why is it we see that the Orthodox religion and its churches and writings, were virtually unaffected from these barbarian invasions? How is it, that the invading barbarians somehow destroyed only the SECULAR culture of the Roman empire, while the RELIGIOUS culture stayed intact? Indeed most of the barbarian invaders were Arian Christians, and the Orthodox church wielded enough authority and prestige to easily convert the Arians over the next centuries into Orthodoxy Christians. (The Franks although pagan, but were also easily converted into Orthodox Christianity.) Was it that the threat of violent invaders scared the Romans from studying their classical, secular culture? This seems unlikely. Virtually ALL ancient civilizations have had to face the threats of aggressive neighboring countries ready to overrun and destroy their cultures. Even when faced with an insurmountable enemy--as was the case with the Greeks against the Persians and the Romans, and the Jews against the Babylonians, Greeks, Romans-- the learning and CULTURE of these groups had survived. This was because later generations were interested in preserving this culture-- from father to child--even in the face of persecutions against them. Other Common Defenses by Some Historians On Why the Dark Ages were not Really So "Dark" or were "Necessary" Some historians have attempted to evade the issue that it was an AUTHORITIARIAN, RELIGIOUS body that brought the Roman Empire into a Dark Age. As was mentioned above, one common ploy has been to counterclaim that the dark times of the Middle Ages were "necessary" in order to evolve into our present modern society. However, these same individuals never specifically explain what was "gained" by society being in an ignorant and superstitious state for roughly eight hundred to one thousand years! Or to put this another way, this does not explain why close to a THOUSAND years elapsed, before secular knowledge was to revive at levels that had existed, just PRIOR TO the fall of the Roman Empire in the West Some historians point to the "revival" that occurred in the 12th century C.E., as proof that there was NO Dark Age. The flaw with this view, of course, is that it casts a blind eye towards the 5th - 11th centuries. A renaissance revival of sorts did appear in the 12th century (note this time period corresponds with the reintroduction of Greco-Roman classics in Western Europe). This 12th century renaissance was largely crushed through the combined effects of the Inquisition, plagues and wars. Arguably, some of it did survive and led to the resurgence of the Italian Renaissance in the 15th century. Thus, it could be argued that the Renaissance can trace some of its beginnings in the 12th century. But, this is different, than arguing that the Dark Ages NEVER occurred at all! David Lindberg uses a variation of this method in his scholarly book, THE BEGINNINGS OF WESTERN SCIENCE to claim there was a "continuity" of science leading from medieval times up into the Renaissance. How does he do this-- as he admits there is virtually no "natural" (vs. supernatural) outlook before the eleventh century C.E. in the sciences? He defines the "medieval period" as lasting broadly from 400 - 1300 C.E. His examples of scientific activity (all soundly and brilliantly argued) apply only to the LATEST medieval period 1100- 1300 C.E. This means his argument for real "continuity" of medieval science self-destructs, if one also insists on the existence of scientific studies in the earlier, much larger period from 400 to 1100 C.E. David Lindberg, in the same book, also questioned whether or not there was a true "decline" in scholarship during medieval times. Again the key is how "scholarship" is defined: "Did [the fall of Rome] spell the end of serious scholarship? Some, who have chosen to define "scholarship" as a continuation of Greek and Roman scholarship have judged so. But this is a serious mistake. There is no question that scholarship declined in quantity and quality; ...scholarship continued, but in new forms and with changed focus." (Lindberg, IBID, p 184) Elsewhere Lindberg acknowledges "there is virtually no science or natural philosophy in early medieval religious and theological works". His point is that if one defines scholarly as "religious or ecclesiastical", then there was indeed a great deal of scholarly activity associated with medieval times. The implication is that maybe "serious scholarship" does not have to include the sciences. Lindberg does not attempt to judge how this medieval attitude towards the sciences affected western civilization--the resulting belief in demons and witches, incessant wars, and misery index for most people. Nor does Lindberg attempt to "test" his definition by applying it towards other societies (such as fundamentalist Islamic societies) where there has also been a focus on religion and a disinterest in the sciences. This gives his arguments more the ring of a hollow apologetic response, rather than a valid defense. Medieval Times were a Romantic Period with Knights, Damsels in Distress... Another method for minimizing the pain and suffering during the Middle Ages, has been to "romanticize" (ie fantasize) that the Dark Ages was really a highly adventurous, wonderful time--complete with errant knights, beautiful damsels in distress, and the like. Writers who make such claims tend to also IGNORE important aspects of medieval society, such as the poverty, famines, plagues, pograms, wars--not to mention the abysmal medical and sanitary conditions of the times. (Also rarely mentioned, is that the literature of the individual knight in armor was not popular until around the twelfth century C.E.--ie after the Crusades brought Western Europe into contact with Muslim Arabic civilization. Prior to this time, most literature speaks of a pious few, living among harsh and cruel living conditions.) For all of the above reasons, it seems to argue that the Dark Ages was not really so "dark", is not much different than the declaration by some modern fascist groups that the Nazi holocaust under Hitler DID NOT REALLY HAPPEN! That is, individuals can always state what they want to believe-- through focusing exclusively on a few facts in their favor, while completely ignoring ALL the other evidence that contradicts their position. The Dark Ages were Free of much of Modern Society's "Secular" Influences History will show that during medieval times, people were free of many of the SECULAR influences seen in today's society! If condemnations by modern fundamentalists on modern society are to be taken seriously, then by contrast, one would suppose medieval times to have been a relatively "wonderful" period of time. After all, magazines, books, television, rock music, etc were either not available or not invented yet. Humanism, atheism, feminism, and gay rights--were virtually unknown. Darwin's theory of evolution had not even been formulated. Indeed there was NO conflict with science and religion during these times because science was virtually non-existent. Even secular education in the schools, could be ruled out as a corrupting influence, as the majority of people did not attend school--nor could they read or write. Instead, during medieval times, nearly everyone believed that the earth was located at the center of the universe. Man was believed to be the focus of God's divine attention. Clearly, the Church was the most important social institution in the lives of nearly everyone during medieval times. Few people questioned the Church's assertion that it ruled as God's authority on earth. Yet, the result was NOT an inspiring one. Writings from this time, speak of the terrible violence and suffering brought on by wars, plagues, and poverty. Nor were the people any more moral--based on the reports of violence such as murders, wars, and rapes from these times. (See Section VI, Chapter 8 and 9 on "Sex" and "Women".) During the Dark Ages, slavery and serfdom was common. Modern ideas of individual freedom and liberty were virtually unheard of. Church authorities, in following St Augustine's theories, stressed how man was a depraved, sinful creature--that there was no hope for this life, and that one should instead set their hopes on the "next" life. Using the model of Adam and Eve sinning through eating from the tree of knowledge of good and evil--secular knowledge was taught to be potentially sinful and therefore dangerous. To debate on theological doctrines could also be dangerous. Had not St. Augustine warned that God "spent His time building a special hell for those that asked ... questions" such as what did God do before He created the earth? (Of course, some areas were not considered sinful for human minds to venture into. Examples included agriculture (which could feed the hungry and poor), the construction of churches (which inspired sinners to think heaven bound), and commentaries (such as those on the lives of the saints.) Christian Platonic "Distrust" of the Senses Thus, (in this author's opinion), one of the leading causes of Western Europe's entry into the Dark Ages, was that people largely despaired of secular learning in the arts and sciences. Pagan civilization had of course also experienced a serious decline, basically for the same reasons as the Christian Catholic society. That is, as times had become worse, in pagan society the sciences were de-emphasized in favor of MYSTICISM.(This trend is fairly common whenever there is a socio- economic decline--people return to more mystical solutions-- which in turn usually leads to even further declines.) Thus, Platonic philosophy with its emphasis on mysticism and distrust of the senses, had become the dominant school of philosophy among PAGANS as well as among Christians. During the time that Platonic philosophy had been popular in Rome, there was a general decline in the sciences and secular learning. Early Christian fathers incorporated many Platonic outlooks into their doctrines--including his views on redemption, revelation, and heaven. However, there was ONE important difference between the Platonic beliefs of pagans and those of Orthodox Christians. For Orthodox Christians (unlike their pagan counterparts) claimed absolute CERTAINTY in all important knowledge (i.e., knowledge of God and heaven). Therefore, any views OTHER than their own, were harshly stamped out as heretical. While Platonic pagans viewed knowledge of the secular world as "unnecessary"--Platonic Christians took this ONE step further-- arguing that KNOWLEDGE itself of the secular world was a "sin" against God! In this way, they instilled the fear that too much learning could jeopardize one's immortal soul. This lead to the belief that secular learning should be removed from society (via book burnings, persecutions, etc). The Church became hostile if not indifferent to secular pursuits. Using St. Augustine's doctrine of Original Sin, the Catholic Church in the West taught how it was impossible for society to solve its own problems. Instead, people were urged to act as children in their obedience to authorities. There was no search for new knowledge, nor striving to improve society. Reasoning, debate, and questioning halted. Science had earlier been abandoned. It was replaced by religious dogma and superstition--which was NOT to be questioned (and therefore could not be "revised" or improved). No doubt, the presence of famines, disease, and wars also served to demoralize a declining Roman population in the late fourth/early fifth century C.E. This in itself, does NOT explain why most secular learning and knowledge collapsed. What was more likely was that the failures of pagan science against these terrible diseases further emboldened conservative Christians to declare this as proof that ALL their secular knowledge was garbage. (And without doubt, Christians could probably find many pagan superstitions intermingled with their sciences.) Eventually, all learning centers (outside of a few religiously run schools and monasteries) closed down in the West. As many libraries were probably adjuncts to pagan and Jewish temples, much of these were likely destroyed when the temples were overrun by Christian mobs. Some of these writings were likely taken away by pagans as they fled the cities. Other writings probably disintegrated in time through disuse (no one cared to read or recopy them.) Whatever, the exact causes, the vast majority of secular writings were lost in Europe following this time. Illiteracy ran high, even among clergymen. Morale was generally low. The most educated and ambitious men would find more promising careers as bishops and abbots, then participate in a government. Others secluded themselves from the rest of the world in monasteries to focus on the abasement of the human race, and the salvation of a few (ie themselves) through God's mercy. An interesting analogy can be made here with psychological studies that have demonstrated how individuals who do NOT "like" themselves tend to "give up" on life, and turn towards escapism such as drugs and alcohol. During the Middle Ages, society was taught that pride was a sin and to hate themselves was a virtue. In contrast in Eastern Byzantine, it was more difficult for the Church in Constantinople to claim absolute authority in religious matters--because such authority was splintered among the different Eastern Sees--Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem--who competed among themselves for doctrinal authority. The close proximity of the Byzantine emperor also meant that doctrinal decisions of the Greek Orthodox church could be overruled by the State. Unlike in the West, where schools were shut down (with no real interest in reopening them)-- the Byzantine empire secular instruction remained open under the control of State-run schools. (It was after the office of the Western Roman emperor was reinstated under Charlemagne, that secular schools opened again in the West.) Possibly even more important, Greek Orthodox Christians did NOT revere St. Augustine as an important Christian father. Therefore his doctrine of Original Sin never entered Eastern Christian dogma, where it had played so powerful a role in the West for explaining suffering and hardship. The Greek-Orthodox also retained much of their love for learning-- and preserved and studied the ancient SECULAR texts, which were allowed to become lost in the West. Yet, although most historians would agree that Byzantine culture was more advanced than Western Catholic culture in the centuries following Constantine--still the old Greek drive for NEW knowledge, appeared to have also declined in the East. There were few advances in medicine or the sciences in Byzantium during this time, as their culture tended to stress obedience as opposed to striving for new ideas. Today, Byzantine art looks very crude and childlike, compared to that of the ancient Greeks. During the reign of the emperor Justin, the most superstitious aspects of religion were emphasized-- which probably contributed to the decline of the Byzantine Empire after this time. (Perspective on OTHER "Darkages" Around the World Obviously FUNDAMENTALIST Catholic Christians were not the only group to have brought on a Dark Age throughout the history of civilization! For many centuries, the Moslem Arabs held one of the most advanced civilizations in the known ancient world. Indeed the preservation of Greek texts and new learning, occurred largely in Muslim controlled lands, while Europe slumbered in the Dark Ages. The golden age of Muslim science and culture was, however, extinguished by fundamentalist Turks, in the eleventh century C.E., after burning books and likewise denigrating secular learning. (Paralleling earlier Christian attitudes in the West, the fundamentalist Muslim philosopher al- Ghazzali (1058-1111) had argued that scientific studies proved to shake men's faith in God and undermine religion.) One of the most recent or "modern" Dark Age was brought on by a FUNDAMENTALIST ATHEIST regime. I speak of course on communist Russia, which after the Bolshevik revolution of 1917, thrust Russian society into its own "Dark Age". In less than a century, Marxist ideologues had killed off massive numbers of dissidents and intellectuals (now for the benefit of the "State" as opposed to "for God"). Individual ingenuity and creativity were crushed under an oppressive ideology that taught that all thinking was to be performed by communist party officials. Capitalism--ie the acquisition of capital and labor for profit was deemed the new "heresy", leading to the ultimate decline of Soviet commerce and agriculture. During communist rule, some Soviet professions--such as in the applied sciences and history--were NOT popular careers for students, because of their past "entanglements" with Soviet ideology. (See SECTION V, Chapter 20) The common thread between (medieval) Catholic Western Europe, atheistic communist Russia, Nazi Germany, etc, is that in all cases, fundamentalist ideologues had taken hold over society--insisting that they and only they, were imparted with "true" knowledge to rebuild society according to their utopian blueprint. However, instead of producing a new "improved" society, the value of human life was denigrated to a point whereby the "individual" had little or no worth. This led to powerful authoritarian, militaristic states in the SHORT term--but for moribund (dying) societies and civilizations in the LONG term. As we shall see next, the movement of the West out of the Dark Ages and into the Renaissance began only after the striving for new secular learning and discovery slowly returned--ie after learning centers reopened, and religious scholars and philosophers began to reconcile the striving for new secular knowledge as NOT sinful in the eyes of God! Wars, famines, and epidemics were still common. But there was now a new focus on the dignity and promise of man. What followed was a revival of Greco-Roman learning and culture, most of it imitated within a religious humanistic Christian framework. The importance of the Renaissance was its change in emphasis on the paradigm (or philosophy) of the individual's role in the universe towards a human- centered (some would say humane, others hedonistic) point of view. It was from the foundation established by the Renaissance, that the sciences and arts would begin to grow, and later surpass--first slowly, then later in leaps and bounds-- the knowledge known to the ancient Graeco-Roman pagan world!