SECTION V Chapter 12 - The Trial of Galileo "I do not feel obliged to believe that the same God who has endowed us with sense, reason, and intellect has intended us to forgo its use." --Galileo "In questions of science, the authority of a thousand is not worth the humble reasoning of a single individual." -- Galileo To understand why Galileo's views were deemed heretical, it is important to understand early Greek and Christian views on the nature of the universe: The idea that the Earth moves around the sun was proposed by the early Greeks in the sixth century BC. However the idea did not gain much acceptance even in the Graeco-Roman civilization. Aristotle for one believed the sun and planets revolved around the earth. The Church held the concept of the earth being positioned at the center of the universe, to be one of the central cornerstones of Christian theology. The Bible clearly supported the view that it was the sun, stars, and planets that revolved around the earth--and that the earth was fixed in space--never to be moved! For examples: * I Chronicles 16:30 (RSV) states, "Worship the Lord in holy array; tremble before him, all the earth; yea, the world stands firm, never to be moved". (See Section VI, Chapter 1 for other references.) * Joshua ordered the sun and moon to stand still in order to give his hebrew troops more light to kill the inhabitants of Gibeon, saying: "Sun, stand thou still at Gibeon; and thou, Moon in the valley of Ajalon. And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the [hebrew] nation took vengeance on their enemies..." (Joshua 10:12-3) * In Psalms 93:1, one reads, "The Lord reigneth, he is robed in majesty; the Lord is robed, he is girded with strength. Yea, the world is established; it shall never be moved... (see also Psalms 96:10, and 104:5). * The earth was viewed as supported by giant pillars below it: "...For the pillars of the earth are the Lord's, and on them he has set the world" (1 Samuel 2:8, see also Micah 6:2) Biblical passages in the Old and New Testament also implied that the earth was flat, but this was less direct: * The prophet Daniel described a vision of a giant tree situated in the middle of the earth, whose "top reached heaven and was visible to the end of the whole earth." (Daniel 4:10-11). Daniel is clearly envisioning a flat earth, since this giant tree was visible throughout the entire world. Likewise, Matthew viewed the earth as flat when he stated that "the devil took him [Jesus] to a very high mountain, and showed him all the kingdoms of the world and the glory of them." (see Matthew 4:8) [He would have had to have X-ray vision to see all the kingdoms on a round earth - why would he need to be on a very high mountain for this?] Belief in the importance of the earth's position within the universe came to be held by the medieval Church as inviolate as belief in the Bible itself! The perfect order of the sun and stars revolving around the earth, were seen to mirror the order of heaven itself and thus ultimately the divine authority imparted to kings and to the pope. Copernicus (1473-1543) and the Theory that the Earth Revolved Around the Sun. During the Renaissance, some early scientists surmised that the sun did NOT revolve around the earth. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), wrote that the earth was NOT located at the center of the universe: "The earth is not in the centre of the Sun's orbit nor at the centre of the universe, but in the centre of its companion elements, and united with them. And any one standing on the moon, when it and the sun are both beneath us, would see this our earth and the element of water upon it just as we see the moon, and the earth would light it as it lights us." (Jean Paul Richter, THE NOTEBOOKS OF LEONARDO DA VINCI, Volume II Dover Publications, Inc., New York,1970, p 137) Da Vinci encrypted his notes using mirror writing--possibly because he did not wish to offend some of his wealthy patrons (which included Church officials). The Polish astronomer Nikolai Kopernicki (Copernicus), is usually given the credit for the theory that the earth and planets revolve around the sun. Copernicus, who taught in Rome, noticed that mathematical calculations on the positions of the stars and planets were much simpler--"IF" it were assumed that the planets revolved around the sun. Copernicus was so fearful of its religious-political implications, that he did not publish his theory until he was on his death bed (some forty years after he had first arrived at his theory). His editor replaced Copernicus' introduction in his book DE REVOLUTIONIBUS ORBIUM COELESTIUM (1543) with one that included the disclaimer that the information being presented was merely an abstract thought experiment-- and NOT intended to suggest that the planets and earth REALLY evolved around the sun. Part of the introduction read: "For these hypotheses [regarding the heliocentric system] need not be true nor even probable; if they provide a calculus consistent with the observations, that alone is sufficient... So far as hypotheses are concerned, let no one expect anything certain from astronomy, which cannot furnish it, lest he accept as the truth ideas conceived for another purpose, and depart from this study a greater fool than when he entered it. Farewell." Very little public attention was given at first to Copernicus' book-- either by Church authorities or by early scientists. Fear of public censure was probably an important factor in some scientists remaining silent on the subject. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), who meticulously studied the movements of the stars and planets with the latest precision instruments, never mentioned Copernicus' theory (either for political or scientific reasons.) He devised a hybrid scheme whereby the earth was shown at the center of the universe-- but the OTHER planets revolved around the sun. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) began describing planetary paths in elliptical form instead of perfect circles. However, he was careful to never mention that the earth itself moved. The only man known to have publicly defended the Copernican theory, Giordano Bruno, was excommunicated and burned alive in Rome in 1600. True, Bruno would probably have been executed, anyway, for not repenting of his OTHER heresies--such as questioning the doctrine of the Trinity and denying the existence of hell. Still, the circumstances surrounding his trial and execution show the mindset of these times.--According to official pronouncements, Bruno was not to receive clemency because "he had remained firm in his despicable stubbornness". His mind was "foggy and confused by a thousand errors and vanities." Asked to recant, the recalcitrant Bruno reportedly replied "What do I have to repent of?" Adding, "Perhaps you who pronounce my sentence are more afraid than I who receive it." So great was Bruno's perceived sin, that the monks had Bruno muzzled, to protect the spectators from hearing his heresies. Galileo (1564-1642) Galileo must have been at least familiar with the Copernican theory.-- In September, 1604 a spectacular nova had exploded in the constellation of Serpentarius. Galileo had argued privately to friends that this event refuted the doctrine of the incorruptibility of the heavens. In 1609, Galileo heard about the recent invention of the telescope, and promptly built one himself that had a magnification of 32 times. The next year, Galileo published the SIDEREUS NUNCIUS in Venice. In it, he described how he saw that the surface of the moon appeared rugged and uneven--instead of being perfectly smooth as contemplated by the philosophers. Another discovery that Jupiter had four moons, proved that there were SOME bodies that did NOT revolve around the earth. Afterwards, in other letters, Galileo noted the presence of dark "spots" on the sun, and even the presence of phases on the planet Venus. (footnote: Galileo thus answered earlier heliocentric criticism as to why Venus did not appear to have phases like the moon, if it was between the earth and sun. Galileo saw with his telescope that when Venus is closest to the earth, that it presents a "crescentic face.") While Copernicus was on record with his introduction stating this was an interesting "theory", Galileo now purported to have PHYSICAL EVIDENCE that the earth was NOT located at the physical center of the universe. This meant that it was moving as an ordinary planet! Based upon this physical evidence, Galileo openly wrote that the Copernican theory should be accepted as fact. Because Galileo wrote his book in Italian (instead of Latin), it reached a large audience. The conservative response was quick and forceful. Galileo's methods were declared absurd! They argued that the senses cannot be trusted in such important matters.--For was not the telescope an invention, which might alter the "true" appearance of things? Instead, the only guaranteed method of arriving at the truth, was from theological reasoning based on the holy texts of scripture. Genesis stated that the moon was "a great light". Using religious allegory, it was obvious that there could only be seven planets-- as the number seven has mystical significance (ie there were seven golden candlesticks of the Apocalypse, seven branched candlesticks of the tabernacle, seven churches of Asia, the fetus is perfectly formed after seven months, etc.) (Homer Smith, MAN AND HIS GODS, with forward by Albert Einstein, Grosset's Universal Library, Grosset & Dunlap, New York, LCC 52-5512, 1952, p 311) Galileo was denounced as a "heretic" and an "atheist" by both Catholics and Protestants alike. There was an outcry by conservatives that Galileo should be handed over to the Inquisition. His new theory upset the "whole plan of Christian salvation." For example, it was reasoned that: "If the earth is a planet, and only one among several planets, it cannot be than any such great things have been done specially for it as the Christian doctrine teaches. If there are other planets, since God makes nothing in vain, they must be inhabited; but how can their inhabitants be descended from Adam? How can they trace their origin to Noah's ark? How can they have been redeemed by the Savior?" (Ibid, p 312). The Protestant reformer Martin Luther referred to Copernicus as "an upstart astrologer." Per Luther, "This fool wishes to reverse the entire science of astronomy; but sacred Scripture tells us that Joshua commanded the sun to stand still, and not the earth." John Calvin wrote, "Who will venture to place the authority of Copernicus above that of the Holy Spirit?" In 1615, Galileo was summoned before the Inquisition. After a month of deliberation, the court rendered a unanimous decision: "The first proposition, that the sun is the center and does not revolve around the earth, is foolish, absurd, false in theory, and heretical, because expressly contrary to Holy Scripture...[T]he second proposition, that the earth is not the center but revolves around the sun, is absurd, false in philosophy, and, from a theological point of view at least, opposed to the true faith." Pope Paul V, asked the liberal Cardinal Bellarmine to talk to Galileo and convince him of the serious consequences from not professing his "errors"-- ie, imprisonment in the dungeons of the Inquisition. (Footnote: The scholarly and well respected Cardinal Bellarmine, believed that the Bible was not necessarily literally true.--That instead, God had written it down in a form whereby it could be understood by "less advanced" people than those in the sixteenth century.) Bellarmine ordered Galileo: "in the name of His Holiness the Pope and the whole Congregation of the Holy Office, to relinquish altogether the opinion that the sun is the center of the world and immovable, and the earth moves, nor henceforth to hold, teach, or defend it in any way whatsoever, verbally or in writing." Galileo reluctantly agreed. Shortly afterwards, the teaching of the "doctrine of the double motion of the earth about its axis and about the sun" was declared false and heretical, and all writings referring to it were placed on the Index of condemned writings. Galileo remained silent for some ten years. Upon the death of Paul V, and the succession of Urban VIII (who had in earlier years seemed liberal and sympathetic to the Copernican theory), Galileo began discussing the subject again. He was quickly denounced. This time, Galileo conceived of an idea of writing a book that would present both sides for and against the Copernican system. After eight years, the Holy Office of the Catholic Church granted Galileo permission to publish his book, on condition that he presented the Copernican theory as imaginary, as opposed to real. After Galileo published the DIALOGO in 1632, Church officials became furious. For although Galileo had "technically" complied by preparing a preface that declared the Copernican theory to be imaginary, the text of the book clearly showed the Copernican theory to be real. Urban VIII was especially offended because all of his arguments against the Copernican theory were given by a character in the dialogue who was presented as a simpleton. The pope ordered Galileo to appear again before the body of the Inquisition. When the pope's summons reached him, Galileo was old and sickly in Florence. His doctors had prepared certificates declaring that the journey to Rome might prove fatal. The angry pope responded that if Galileo did not come on his own accord, that he would be forcibly transported in chains. The Grand Duke of Florence provided a cot, and Galileo was CARRIED in it all the way to Rome in the cold February of 1633. At his Inquisition trial, Galileo was placed under house arrest and ordered to recant his heretical views. The accusation against him read: "Whereas you, Galileo...aged seventy years, were denounced in 1615, to this Holy Office, for holding as true a false doctrine taught by many, namely, that the sun is immovable in the center of the world, and that the earth moves, and also with a diurnal motion; also, for having pupils whom you instructed in the same opinions; also, for maintaining a correspondence on the same with some German mathematicians; also, for publishing certain letters on the sun-spots, in which you developed the same doctrine as true; also, for answering the objections which were continually produced from the Holy Scriptures, by glozing the said Scriptures according to your own meaning; and whereas hereupon was produced the copy of a writing, in form of a letter professedly written to you to a person formerly your pupil, in which, following the hypothesis of Copernicus, you include several propositions contrary to the true sense and authority of the Holy Scriptures; therefore (this Holy Tribunal being desirous of providing against the disorder and mischief which were thence proceeding and increasing to the detriment of the Holy Faith) by the desire of his Holiness and the Most Emminent Lords, Cardinals of this supreme and universal Inquisition, the two propositions of the stability of the sun, and the motion of the earth, were qualified by the Theological Qualifiers as follows: 1. The proposition that the sun is the center of the world and immovable from its place is absurd, philosophically false, and formally heretical; because it is expressly contrary to Holy Scriptures. 2. The proposition that the earth is not the center of the world, nor immovable, but that it moves, and also with a durnal action, is also absurd, philosophically false, and theologically considered, at least erroneous in faith. Therefore..., invoking the most holy name of our Lord Jesus Christ and His Most Glorious Mother Mary, We pronounce this Our final sentence: We pronounce, judge, and declare, that you Galileo... have rendered yourself vehemently suspected by this Holy Office of heresy, that is, of having believed and held the doctrine (which is false and contrary to the Holy and Divine Scriptures) that the sun is the center of the world, and that it does not move from east to west, and that the earth does move, and it not the center of the world; also that an opinion can be held and supported as probable, after is has been declared and finally decreed contrary to the Holy Scripture, and consequently, that you have incurred all the censures and penalties enjoined and promulgated in the sacred canons and other general and particular constituents against delinquents of this description. From which it is Our pleasure that you be absolved, provided that with a sincere heart and unfeigned faith, in Our presence, you abjure, curse, and detest, the said error and heresies, and every other error and heresy contrary to the Catholic and Apostolic Church of Rome." Realizing that the penalty was torture from the Inquisitors, Galileo recanted. On June 22, 1633, he knelt before the tribunal and swore the following oath: "I, Galileo Galilei ... aged seventy years, being brought personally to judgment, and kneeling before you Most Eminent and Most Reverend Lords Cardinals, General Inquisitors of the universal Christian republic against depravity ... swear that... I will in future believe every article which the Holy Catholic and Apostolic church of Rome holds, teaches, and preaches... I held and believed that the sun is the center of the universe and is immovable, and that the earth is not the center and is movable; willing, therefore, to remove from the minds of your Eminences, and of every Catholic Christian, this vehement suspicion rightfully entertained against me,...I abjure, curse and detest the said errors and heresies, ...and I swear that I will never more in future say or assert anything verbally, or in writing, which may give rise to a similar suspicion of me... But if it shall happen that I violate any of my said promises, oaths and protestations (which God avert!), I subject myself to all the pain and punishments which have been decreed...against delinquents of this description." (Sir Oliver Lodge, PIONEERS OF SCIENCE, Macmillan & Co., London, 1893. Reprinted by Dover Publications, New York, 1960.) After Galileo recanted, he was held under house arrest for the rest of his life. However his writings, though hunted down, survived and influenced a later generation of scientists--most notably Isaac Newton (who was born in 1642, the same year Galileo died). Immediately after his trial, Pope Urban and the Holy Congregation ordered that Galileo's sentence and recantation be publicized in order that: "you and all professors of philosophy and mathematics may have knowledge of it, that they may know why we proceeded against the said Galileo, and recognize the gravity of his error, in order that they may avoid it, and thus not incur the penalties which they would have to suffer in case they fell into the same." After 1664, a prefix was added to the Church's Index of Forbidden Books which forbade "all writings which affirm the motion of the earth." A bull signed by the pope gave this prohibition the status of an infallible doctrine. Theologians and intellectuals came to the support of this Church doctrine by devising arguments as to why it was absurd to believe that the earth could move. One argument ran, *"animals, which move, have limbs and muscles; the earth has no limbs and muscles, therefore it does not move. It is the angels who make Saturn, Jupiter, the sun, etc., turn round. If the earth revolves, it must also have an angel in the center to set it in motion; but only devils live there; it would therefore be a devil who would impart motion to the earth..." and another, *"The Copernican theory of the earth's motion is against the nature of the earth itself, because the earth is not only cold but contains in itself the principle of cold; but cold is opposed to motion, and even destroys it--as is evident in animals, which become motionless when they become cold." (Smith, Ibid, p 314-5) * * * Galileo's works were not removed from the forbidden list until 1835--and even then--this was done under fierce opposition. As late as the 1870's, there were a flurry of books that attacked the Copernican theory of the universe, and attempted to bring back the earth-centered view. It was not until 1992, that the Catholic Church, under Pope John II, formally reversed Galileo's conviction of the Inquisition tribunal. Of course, this was over 350 years after Galileo's trial-- AND OVER TWENTY YEARS AFTER THE FIRST MEN HAD LANDED ON THE MOON!