Socrates  (c 470 - 399 B.C.E.)

  Socrates' famous dialogues with the citizens of Athens, was recorded by
his student Plato. In these dialogues, we see a demonstration of the
"Socratic method" for establishing the truth of a proposition. That is,
after a proposition is established, the next step is to examine it in every
conceivable way, and bring out all of its ambiguities and errors for open
discussion. This is a precursor to the modern "scientific" method-- which
likewise attempts to discover truth by careful observation, analysis and
reason.

  Athens was democratic during this time, but some philosophers such as
Socrates argued that society had degenerated into mob rule led by orators
who "go ringing on in long harangues, like brazen pots which, when struck,
continue to sound till a hand is put upon them." (Plato's PROTAGORAS,
sect. 329)  Socrates felt that instead, society should be ruled only by
the WISEST men in society. (Unfortunately Socrates did not offer any solid
method that guaranteed that it was the WISE as opposed to the POWER-HUNGRY
men who obtained this authority.) Socrates' philosophy appealed to some young
wealthy aristocrats, who after studying under his tutelage, went out on their
own to lead a revolt against the Athenian democracy.  The revolt failed, but
Socrates' prior association with the revolutionaries led to charges that he
was a dangerous agitator against Athens' democracy.  Socrates "gadfly"
approach in questioning EVERYTHING-- especially the existence of the Homeric
gods--had also made him many enemies. Socrates was arrested and accused of
questioning the existence of the gods, and of corrupting the young.

  At his trial, Socrates stressed how he was not concerned about death
as eventually everyone succumbed to death.  Instead his concern was
to personally lead a virtuous life:

  "If you acquit me ....I shall reply: Men of Athens, I honor and love you,
  but I shall obey God rather than you, and while I have life and strength,
  I shall never cease from the practice and teaching of philosophy...I
  do nothing but go about, persuading you all, old and young alike, not to
  take thought for your persons or your properties, but first and chiefly
  to care about the greatest improvement of the soul." (Jowett, B.
  THE DIALOGUES OF PLATO: THE REPUBLIC. New York: Random House 1937,
  pp 338-9.)

  After Socrates refused any option of exile by the Athenian council, the
council voted for his execution.  Socrates warned those who had voted
against him, that silencing individuals such as himself would only lead to the
decline of Athens.  To those jurors who voted him innocent, Socrates
thanked them.  Socrates assured them that he did not fear his sentence of
death, as "no evil can come to a good man either in life or after death".
(APOLOGY 29a-b,40c,41d)

  To Socrates, death is nothing more than an "endless unconsciousness",
where all eternity is experienced as a night of sound sleep.  If somehow
there was a life after death, Socrates said he looked forward to meeting
some of the other great spirits of the past, such as Homer and Hesiod.
In the afterlife, he was sure they wouldn't kill a man for asking questions.

   During his last days, Socrates was told by his friends that they could
arrange for his escape. Socrates refused, arguing that it would not be
right to break the law. After all, he reasoned, what kind of example would
he be setting, if he just ran away?  Would this not appear to others as if
each person had the right to pass judgment on his own actions, if they did
not abide by the laws of his community?  Instead, Socrates insisted,
personal virtue is its own reward! In compliance with his Athenian sentence,
he committed suicide by drinking poison.

  During the next century, Socrates' doctrines would influence the
philosophy of Stoicism--whereby the individual felt it to be his "duty" to
lead a virtuous life.-- Or as the Roman Stoic Cicero would later describe
it, where the individual chooses to lead a virtuous life for its own sake,
regardless of whether he expects to be personally rewarded for it, or not!

Plato

  Plato (428-348 B.C.E.), the famous student of Socrates, was twenty-eight when
his teacher died. Born into a wealthy, aristocratic family, Plato viewed 
Socrates' trial and conviction as proof that democracy was degenerate and
needed to be replaced by a new form of government.  Unlike his master,
Plato devoted his philosophy towards devising a system that would allow
for the wisest and best men to rule society.

  Plato's search for the utopian government led him to travel first to Egypt, 
whose priestly educated elite held absolute authority over the people. From 
here, he probably spent some time with the Pythagoreans in Italy where he noted 
again how a small educated elite ruled over the rest of society in basic 
religious harmony. There was a tradition that Plato may even have studied later 
among the Jews in Judea, and the Hindus in India, during his years of searching.
(Possibly Plato met up with these traditions through his studies with the 
Pythagoreans, but all this is speculation.)

  Plato returned to Greece, now around forty years old. He put down his views
of utopia and theology in his great classic, THE REPUBLIC. In it, Plato argued
that only a "philosopher-king" can justly lead society:

  "Until philosophers are kings, or the kings and princes of this world
   have the spirit and power of philosophy, and wisdom and political
   leadership meet in the same man,...cities will never cease from ill,
   nor the human race". (REPUBLIC, 473)

  In his REPUBLIC, Plato argued that human behavior draws from three main
sources--desire, emotion, and knowledge. First, some individuals have excess
DESIRE, and we see such men greedily chasing after material/financial gain
and luxury. These individuals tend to be dominate in business. Second, some
individuals exhibit emotional feelings and BRAVADO courage. Such individuals
tend to be pugnacious and warlike--desiring power in and of itself.  These
men make great soldiers.  And last, are individuals whose delight is in
the pursuit of knowledge and self-improvement.  Only in this last group
can come the best rulers:

  "Ruin comes when the trader, whose heart is lifted up by wealth, becomes
  ruler" (434); or when the soldier desires to use force to establish a
  military dictatorship. Only the philosopher-king can after long years of
  preparation and training, lead society towards harmony and justice."

 Plato taught that a society must believe in God to hold the desires
and emotions of the non-philosophers in check. Belief in personal immortality
also gave the righteous the courage to stand up to fight for that which was
right.

    Plato also taught that there must be a strict education of the young, in
order to prepare them for the new utopian society.  There was to be a strict
censorship over the arts and music to make sure that children were exposed
only to moral correctness.  The stories of Homer and Hesiod were not to be
allowed for a number of reasons. First, they falsely taught that the gods
can behave in evil ways, whereas in truth, God can only do what is good.
Secondly, readers of Homer and Hesiod would learn to fear death.  Instead,
boys must be taught to be willing to die in battle and that slavery is a
fate worst than death. Thirdly, there must be no stories of men weeping or
likewise displaying their emotions, even over the death of friends. There
must likewise be no loud outbursts of laughter or drunken feasts, as austerity
and temperance was to be stressed in all matters. And last, stories told the
young must stress goodness and that the wicked would never be happy.

   Plato's utopia would have banished poets, as he believed they lied about
gods, heroes, and men--impeding the formation of virtue in society. Likewise, 
Plato would have banned naturalistic scientists as he believed that they 
deceived or erred individuals regarding the fundamental nature of the world.

  Thus, while it was the Greeks who laid down the ideals of democracy. It was
other Greeks--notably among them Plato, who set down the philosophical basis
for the opposite--for strong authoritarian rule and censorship.

Platonic Dualism

  As with the mystery religions and Pythagorus, Plato believed in the
concept of the transmigration of souls. (According to Herodotus this belief
had originated in Egypt--although this was possibly also influenced from
contact with Hindu and Eastern religions).  Plato taught that man was
DUALISTIC in nature:  That is man's soul is separate and distinct from his 
physical being. While the body was temporal, the soul was immortal, surviving 
death. In Plato's words:

  "When the soul inquires alone by itself, it departs into the realm of the
  pure, the everlasting, the immortal, and the changeless, and being akin
  to these it dwells always with them whenever it is by itself and is not
  hindered, and it has rest from its wanderings and remains always the same     
  and unchanging with the changeless, since it is in communion therewith.
  And this state of the soul is called wisdom.  It not so?"
  (Plato, PHAEDO (79d))

  Borrowing much of his cosmology from the Pythagoreans, Plato viewed the 
earth as surrounded by seven spheres (one for each visible planet). In the 
eighth sphere lay the realm of the divine, wherein the fixed stars are set 
into motion by the Divine, and whose rotation turns the spheres of the 
planets.  As a result of the movement of the spheres, every soul descends 
layer by layer, until it finally reaches the planet earth--whereupon it is 
united with a body. (Later Platonic philosophers worked out the details
whereby the soul was believed to have acquired astrological attributes,
depending on which planetary spheres the soul fell through, during its
journey leading towards its "birth" on earth.)

   Death was believed to release the soul from the body.  However, only the
soul of the "true" philosopher was thought to ascend towards a celestial
heaven in the sky, where it would live in the company of the god(s).  As for
the impure soul, which had loved material wealth on earth--it would descend 
back down to earth.--There it would either remain a ghost, or instead inhabit 
the body of an animal, according to the character he lived on earth (such as 
a wolf or an ass.)

  In his TIMAEUS, Plato's main character states that the highest God in the 
universe, the Creator, made one soul for each star in the sky.  If a man 
lived well, then his soul would rise upward and he would live happily ever 
after on his star.  If he lived badly, then he would be a woman in his next 
life.  If he (or she) persisted in living an evil life, then the spirit would 
enter future lives as a brute.  God placed some souls on the earth--but others 
were placed on the moon, stars, and planets--leaving it to lower gods to 
fashion their material bodies.

Plato's Non-Empirical View of the Universe

    In his REPUBLIC, Plato described a divine being or Demiurge who constructed 
the cosmos according to an "idea" or plan in His mind.  Everything on earth is a 
copy of this divine model (albeit an imperfect one, because of the limitations 
of the material world).  For example, according to Plato, all tables on earth 
are an imperfect copy of the one divine perfect prototype of a table – the Ideal 
Table.

  Plato believed that all things that people perceive around us are only
"imperfect" copies of eternal Ideals. Plato gave the analogy of the perfect 
geometric shapes of a circle or triangle.  In our experiences in the real world, 
we see circles and triangles of all sizes, none of them exactly perfect in form.  
Yet how is it that our minds can conceive of the perfect representation of these 
forms?  The answer is that there must exist a divine, mystical realm of pure 
forms, that lies beyond the everyday plane of reality.  This spiritual realm of 
forms can only be "known" through the inner eye of the intellect. 

  In addition to perfect geometric ideals, this divine realm of forms also 
contained such eternal absolutes as Goodness, Beauty, and Truth.  Existing in 
a divine realm, and separate from our world of sensations, these "Ideals" 
were said to represent "pure" and "real" values. For example, when we look at 
a cat, we are seeing only an imperfect form of the essential cat--for this cat 
will someday grow old and die.  But the essential "Idea" of the cat will 
always remain.  And it is this Ideal that is the only real and permanent 
reality.

The Realm of the Soul

  Plato dismissed the world of reality, insisting instead that what was
important lay in the realm of the soul.  In PHAEDO, Plato puts these words
in the mouth of Socrates:

   "If we are ever to know anything absolutely, we must be free from the
    body and behold the actual realities with the eye of the soul alone...
    While we live we shall be nearest to knowledge when we avoid, so far
    as possible, intercourse and communion with the body, except what is
    absolutely necessary, and are not infected by its nature, but keep
    ourselves free from it until God himself sets us free."

   Per Plato, our true essences – our souls – are trapped within the material 
prison of our bodies. Our senses can NOT be trusted to discover this ultimate 
reality, for the daily world we experience is illusionary, like the projection 
of a shadow on a wall. In his REPUBLIC, Book VII, Plato used the allegory of a 
man in a cave to illustrate his point:  A man has been tied up in a cave all of 
his life, so that he could only look at what was directly in front of him.  
Other people walk back and forth behind him holding up statues of humans and 
animals.  But the imprisoned man never sees the REAL objects in the cave that 
are BEHIND him. Instead, the only  "reality" he perceives (the shadows) are the 
fleeting imperfect images of the actual objects.

  Using this analogy of the cave, Plato argued that there is a divine realm
of abstract reality, or "essence" which exists away and beyond what we can 
detect by our mere senses. Only when the mind grasps the world's "true"
essence through a philosophical system favoring pure reason (through
mathematics and/or deductive logic), can one discover these ultimate "truths".

  The implications of Plato's philosophy was that scientific investigation in
the world was NOT a meaningful endeavor--as our senses can NOT be trusted as
INPUTS to man's reasoning capacity!   Only the philosopher searching inward
in matters of the soul could find ultimate truths. As we shall later see,
Plato's philosophy would become extremely popular throughout the ancient
world, and would have a strong influence on early and medieval Christian
theologians and scholars.

Aristotle, Father of the "Scientific Method"

  The credit for the philosophical development of the modern "scientific
method" is sometimes given to Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.). Aristotle, who began 
as a disciple of Plato, accepted many Platonic teachings such as the existence
of Ideals (Aristotle renamed these "Forms") within a divine realm. Aristotle
envisioned a deity--described as a "Prime Mover"--who was the original source
of giving purpose to these Forms.  These Forms then interacted with the world
of matter to generate life as we know it, in the world.

    Still, Aristotle came to strongly disagree with some of his former teacher's
abstract, theoretical Ideals for discovering truth and high morals.  True,
Aristotle believed in the existence of mystical Forms--but he saw these as 
"immanent", or existing within the natural objects, as opposed to 
"transcendent", or existing BEYOND the plane of natural objects. For Aristotle 
there were no perfect Form or Ideal of a dog existing in a separate supernatural 
plane of existence, there were only individual dogs. Aristotle used Forms to 
speak of "potential" – such as the potential of a puppy to grow up to be a dog; 
or the "definition" of what a dog means in our minds.

  Unlike Plato, Aristotle also believed that important truths could be obtained 
through using our SENSES in studying nature around us--and in systematizing 
our knowledge into categories. In his famous METAPHYSICS, Aristotle argued 
that there are TWO kinds of knowledge--the first employs the objective 
collection of data or evidence (inductive reasoning).  The other uses logic 
or reasoning to draw basic conclusions from the evidence (deductive reasoning).
For example, our senses can tell us that there is a table in the room with us. 
However we employ logic or reasoning, in deducing that two plus two is always 
four. It was Aristotle who first introduced Logic as a new science.

  Aristotle also disagreed with Plato's metaphysical view that the body was the 
prison of man's immortal soul.  He taught that the highest good consists in a 
life of reason, whereby humans appeal to that part of their nature which most 
ennobles them as a human being (as opposed to an animal). The body must be kept 
in good health, and the emotions kept under control. His "Golden Mean" stressed 
the importance of not yielding to the extremes.  Instead one should live a 
balanced life between the two extremes of excessive indulgences (hedonism) and 
material denial (asceticism).

    The two opposing paradigms of Plato and Aristotle became representative of 
the philosophical clash between the metaphysical vs. scientific outlook of the 
universe. Plato's view or paradigm became known as Realism (so named because it 
implied that there are REAL universal ideas that existed—such as the idea of 
"mankind" or the idea of "trees".)  Platonic philosophers believed that these 
ideals could NEVER be learned through scientific means-- such as discovery 
through our senses and experimentation. 

  In contrast, Aristotle's philosophy or paradigm became known as Nominism, 
because it argued that Plato's abstract ideas existed only "in name"-- ie 
they did not possess any existence in their outside the range of the human 
senses.  As such, our human sense are a good source of discovering truths in 
the universe. (In Section V, Chapter 8 we shall see how different medieval 
philosophers built their world outlooks or paradigms, based upon these two 
opposing philosophies of Plato and Aristotle.)

  Aristotle held the distinction of serving as personal tutor to the young
Alexander the Great, who purportedly learned the boundaries of the world
from his teacher from Athens.  Alexander, (who was a Macedonian, and therefore
considered a barbarian by the Greeks) embraced the Athenian culture of his
famous teacher and exported it throughout his newly conquered empire.

Other Famous "Scientific" Greeks
--Hippocrates

  Aristotle was not the only Greek philosopher who studied and systematized
nature.  Hippocrates (D 377 B.C.E.), who predated Aristotle, emphasized the
importance of observation and study, as opposed to only using one's "reason"
to find a solution. According to Hippocrates,

  "to know is science; merely to believe one knows is ignorance."

Hippocrates is often called the "Father of Medicine" because he was the
first doctor to use the "scientific" method in medicine.

  Hippocrates experimented with baby embryo chickens, watching how they
developed at various stages of maturity. His search for NATURAL as opposed
to divine origins in examining his patient's illnesses, led him to believe
that epilepsy was the result of natural processes, as opposed to contact
with supernatural beings.  When a modern doctor treats a patient, he or she
is basically following the same method that Hippocrates used some 2300 years
ago.  That is, to first observe the symptoms of the patient, and THEN to make
a diagnosis.  The knowledge possessed by modern doctors, since the time of
Hippocrates was acquired basically through the method set down by Hippocrates--
that is through careful observation and questioning. (Howard W. Haggard, THE
DOCTOR IN HISTORY, Dorsett Press,1989, p 65 and 67)

  In addition to being advanced in the medical sciences for his time,
Hippocrates also insisted on the highest ethics for his medical students.
Even TODAY medical students, upon graduation, repeat the ancient oath of
Hippocrates upon becoming a doctor--whereby the physician acknowledges it
is his duty to heal to the best of his ability, ALL of his patients.

  There is one important difference between Hippocrates' studies and modern
inquiries into the health sciences. That is, Hippocrates like other ancient
Greeks, never performed a dissection on a dead human because pagan religious
beliefs forbade this. This attitude against human dissection was the commonly
held view in ancient times--and was taboo in the ancient cultures of not
only Greece, but also ancient Egypt and Rome.  Both Hippocrates and Aristotle
therefore based their anatomical knowledge of the human body on studies of
animals.  (Ancient Christians, like their pagan neighbors, forbade any
experimentation on cadavers.  It was not until the Renaissance, that Christian
doctors and artists began human dissections, even when it was still illegal to
perform them).

--Other Famous Greeks

  In the fourth century B.C.E., important geographic discoveries were being
charted: Hanno passed the Pillars of Hercules and sailed down the west
coast of Africa.  Pytheas sailed around Britain. He also correlated the
lunar phases of the moon with the tides. Many held the Earth to be a sphere,
and some estimates of its true size were computed.

  Aristarches of Samos (c 310-230 B.C.E.) applied geometry to an observed 
eclipse of the moon, and again when the moon was half full, to arrive at the 
then startling conclusion that the sun was larger than the earth. Aristarches 
also put forward the hypothesis that the stars were fixed in position in the 
heavens and that the earth revolved around the sun. The majority of the Greek
philosophers did not agree with Aristarches' view of the universe.  Instead,
Aristotle's view that the earth was located at the center of the universe
remained the most popularly held view of the order of the heavens, in both
pagan and early Christian times.

--Archimedes of Syracuse

  The greatest Greek inventor was unquestionably Archimedes of Syracuse
(287-212 B.C.E.).  During this time, Syracuse was ruled by the comparatively
enlightened ruler Hieron II, who according to Polybius reigned 54 years
"without killing, exiling, or injuring a single citizen."  (As we shall
see in later chapters, the history of modern science is closely linked to
a growing religious and political toleration, that permits free inquiry
into the natural sciences.)  During his lifetime, Archimedes discovered
important scientific principles regarding pulleys, levers, screws, and
weights. It was Archimedes who understood the principles of the lever-- and
boasted that given a long enough lever and a place to stand, that he could
move the earth.

  Syracuse was besieged by the Romans, and despite the brilliant machines of
war employed by Archimedes, was eventually captured. According to one account,
after their victory, the Roman commander gave specific orders to bring
Archimedes back to him alive.  During the looting however, a Roman soldier
found the seventy-five year old Archimedes drawing geometrical diagrams in
the sand. The soldier ordered him to follow him. But, Archimedes, preoccupied
with his mathematics, told him to keep away.  The soldier, in a fit of anger,
killed Archimedes on the spot. (The Roman soldier was later executed for
disobeying orders.)

Why the Ancient Greeks Never Developed a "Truly" Scientific Age

   Aristotle is often given the credit for setting down the scientific method.
A wealthy man, Aristotle built a school named the Lyceum which contained one
of the largest zoos and botanical gardens ever built. The specimens in them
were collected from all over the known ancient world, and carefully cataloged
and studied by Aristotle and his students. Aristotle financed expeditions,
such as a major undertaking to explore the sources of the Nile River, and
thus the causes of its annual floods.

  Aristotle was a very religious man.  Still, he believed in the importance
of using our senses in exploring and learning the world around us. Aristotle's
proofs, which were later taken up by medieval Christian scholars, seek to
logically deduce the existence of God, largely by looking around us to see a
Grand Design to the universe. (See Section VIII, Chapter 1).

  Just as Hippocrates applied observation and analysis towards medicine,
Aristotle applied this same scientific view towards the study of nature.
This led him, at times, to disagree with many popular metaphysical thoughts
of his day.-- For example, Aristotle did NOT agree that dreams were
transmissions of a message from an outside spirit or deity to humans.
Instead, Aristotle believed them to be the result of physical processes
within the body, such as subconscious thought or bodily discomfort.

  Nonetheless, with all of his resources and Aristotle's personal attempts at
rationality and logic, the modern reader will find Aristotle's writings to
abound in mysticism and metaphysics.


  One explanation for this, is that scientific-minded Greeks (such as
Aristotle) were lacking in technical inventions with which to study nature.
Thus they fell back on metaphysics to fill in gaps in knowledge.

  As one historian put it, Aristotle was limited in his scientific endeavors
because he had to:

  "fix time without a watch, to compare degrees of heat without a
  thermometer, to observe the heavens without a telescope, and the weather
  without a barometer... Of all our mathematical, optical and physical
  instruments he possessed only the ruler and compass, together with the
  most imperfect substitutes for some few others. Chemical analysis, correct
  measurements and weights, and a thorough application of mathematics to
  physics, were unknown. The attractive force of matter, the law of
  gravitation, electrical phenomena, the conditions of chemical combination,
  pressure of air and its effects, the nature of light, heat, combustion,
  etc, in short, all the facts on which the physical theories of modern
  science are based were wholly, or almost wholly, undiscovered."
  (Grant, ARISTOTLE, Edinburgh, 1877, P. 18 as quoted by Will Durant, THE
  STORY OF PHILOSOPHY, P 45)

  The astute reader might of course ask WHY the ancient Greeks did
NOT develop the technology necessary to enter into a true "scientific" age?

   One possible answer is that the Greek philosophers, although emphasizing
logic and even mathematics--also showed a lack of interest in experimental
science.   Indeed, Greek philosophers (and later Roman philosophers) held
manual labor to be "beneath" dignified men. Even Aristotle had argued
that experimentation and invention forced one to engage in manual work-- which
was fit only for slaves and base "mechanics." Aristotle believed such
inferior individuals should never be allowed to be citizens of Athens, as

  "no man can practice virtue who is living the life of a mechanic or laborer."
  (Aristotle, POLITICS, III, v (1278a))

    Thus, the Greeks and Romans had no incentive, or "vision" (paradigm) of
creating labor-saving devices, which would have led to other technologies as
well. Instead, the Greek (and later Roman) philosophies emphasized THEORETICAL
speculation based on logic and intuition, as opposed to the APPLIED or
experimental sciences.  The latter is, of course, necessary for inventing
tools and machinery. Using Aristotle again as an example, we find cases where
he dogmatically made certain assertions--without even bothering to conduct the
most basic tests on whether these were true. One example was when he claimed
that men had MORE teeth than women. (This is not true.  Ask any dentist.)
This means that Aristotle must NOT have looked into very many mouths to have
TESTED his theory.

  Therefore, we see that while the "father" of the scientific method had made
some headway into the realm of science, that he was ALSO steeped in the
mystical traditions--ie the "armchair" theoretical philosopher approach
where the mind is believed to be able to "tap" into universal truths.

  Greek science could thus be more characterized as relating to philosophical
speculation on "why" things existed, as opposed to practical tests searching
into "how" things really worked.   Platonic philosophers generally held the
sciences and technology in disdain, as they were primarily interested in
matters of man's spirit. Stoic philosophers were primarily interested in
matters of ethics. Like the Platonists, Aristotle was caught up in a spiritual
paradigm on the inter-workings of the universe-- seeing the universe as a
naturalistic organism whose events had ultimate "causes" or purpose. Aristotle's
doctrine of causes, especially his "final" cause, was taken up by later Judaic-
Christian medieval theologians-- because it easily fit into a doctrine of
"First" Cause and its proof for a cosmic god. (See Section V, Chapter 8).

  Following the decline in Athenian society after the Peloponnesian wars,
most people turned toward the more mystical philosophies/religions.  The
mystery religions emphasized that this life was not important, and that
everyone should instead prepare for the journey of their immortal soul to
the next life. Thus, with all their elaborate logical systems, the Greeks
spent relatively little time in systematically observing the physical world
around them, as compared to modern day scientists.

  Another interesting reference comes from a contemporary historian during the
late first century C.E.--when mysticism was held in high regard in all the
Greek philosophical schools. According to the Jewish historian Josephus, the
Greeks were so concerned with universal spiritual matters, that they were
virtually "INDIFFERENT" to more worldly matters--such as writing history.
That is, while noting how the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Phoenicians had
carefully preserved their historical records, in contrast:

 "almost all which happened to the Greeks happened not long ago, nay is of
  yesterday only. I speak of the building of their cities, the inventions
  of their arts and the description of their laws; and as for the writing
  down of their histories, it is very near the last thing that they set
  themselves to."

  In contrast, the Jews, per Josephus "have the names of our high priests
from father to son set down in our records for a period of two thousand years."
(Herbert Butterfield, THE ORIGINS OF HISTORY, p 118 quoting Moses Finley).

  Of course, the ancient hebrews appear to have shown little to no interest in
the sciences --as there is no record of any significant scientific discovery
made by the hebrews.  Instead, the ancient hebrews appear to have been more
interested in matters of theology and law-- believing that supernatural powers
could be obtained by invoking the ancient covenants with Yahweh.

    The Romans showed some interest in the applied sciences--such as
engineering projects and medicine--much of which they had borrowed from the
Greeks. However, as with the Greeks, most Romans intellectuals tended to
look towards supernatural-- as opposed to natural causes--in explaining the
world around them.  In the process, they viewed manual work as vulgar and
demeaning. A good example of this, can be seen in the writings of the Roman
historian, Plutarch, who projected the attitude of his times onto the famous
Greek inventor, Archimedes. Per Plutarch,

  "[Archimedes] possessed so high a spirit, so profound a soul, and such
   treasures of scientific knowledge...yet would not deign to leave behind
   him any commentary or writing on such subjects; but, repudiating as sordid
   and ignoble the whole trade of engineering, and every sort of art that
   lends itself to mere use and profit, he placed his whole affection and
   ambition in those purer speculations where there can be no reference to
   the vulgar needs of life..."

Other Schools of Greek Philosophy

  So far we have focused only on the philosophies of Socrates, Plato, and
Aristotle.  There were other important schools of philosophy that arose
in Greece, and were competitors to those of Platonism and Aristotelianism.

--The Greek Skeptics

    Some of the Greek Sophists' beliefs were diametrically opposed to those
of Plato's--believing for example in the importance of sensory perception in
obtaining knowledge.  Protagoras, probably the most famous of the Greek
skeptical Sophists, argued that it was this world that mattered, as opposed
to a spiritual realm. When Protagoras issued his famous dictum, "Man is the
measure of all things", he belittled or denied the existence of a divine
authority. Protagoras argued that there were no absolute truths, or eternal
standards of right or wrong--as it could be easily observed that different
cultures throughout time and geographic location came up with opposing
"truths" and morals. Because each was convinced that his was the "true"
morality, Protagoras argued that there is no absolute system--but that this
is arbitrarily invented by humans.

  Conservative members of the Athenian community were concerned that
outlooks such as Protagoras would lead to anarchism and atheism, especially
during the uncertainty following Athens defeat by Sparta.  If there is no
final truth, and if goodness and justice are arbitrary values, then neither
religion, morality, nor society could be maintained over the long term.
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle had searched for absolute values and truth,
largely in opposition to Sophists such as Protagoras.  Plato, wrote a
discourse debating Protagoras--arguing that there IS an absolute morality,
which has been set down by a divine being. Plato corrected Protagoras'
dictate with "God is the measure of all things!".

   Although Protagoras believed in the importance of sensory perception in
obtaining knowledge, later skeptical Sophists perverted this outlook of
Protagoras--by ALSO rejecting the importance of sensory material. It will be
recalled that the Platonists, likewise, did not trust one's senses.  However,
it was now argued that even Plato's spiritual realm of Ideals (Aristotle's
Forms) could NOT be discovered!  For example, according to Gorgias, the human
mind can never know anything for sure--as this is mere subjective impressions
made upon the mind.  "Nothing exists," he insisted. "If anything did
exist it could not be known; if a man should chance to apprehend it, it
would still be a secret; he would be unable to communicate it to his
fellows."

  The skeptics were a small minority among the Greek philosophers.  More
influential schools of philosophy, were those of the Stoics and Epicureans.

-- School of the Stoics

   The Stoic school of philosophy was founded in the third century B.C.E.
by Zeno of Citium (c 342-270 B.C.E.). Zeno had been a merchant, before
loosing a large fortune at sea. Afterwards in Athens, he was consoled
by Cynic philosophers who taught him that material possessions were not
important for a man to be happy.   Zeno elaborated on this to form his own
philosophy.  According to Zeno, true happiness only results through living
a virtuous life based on the highest ideals of ethics and morals. Human
passions are the result of bad judgment in knowing what is really good or
bad. Self control in accepting one's fate was the desired conduct in all
men.  Today the word "stoic" conveys passiveness--a holding in of one's
emotions, and an open acceptance of one's fate in life.

  The primary focus of Stoics was ETHICS. As such, Stoics taught the equality
of ALL men, despite their social rank of master or slave. Stoics also tended
to de-emphasize both logic and metaphysics, to focus instead on solving
ethical problems.

   Stoics believed in Divine Providence.  As the cosmos is ordered and
perfect, all evil was explained as "necessary" incidents that must take
place in order for a greater good to take place.  Man is not a master of
his own fate.--Instead, his destiny is foreordained by a greater power. The
tantamount duty of man is to accept his fate, whatever it brings.  Only
through such resignation, and its consequent tranquility of mind--will one
attain true happiness. Despite their belief in a divine power, most Stoics
were materialists--denying the existence of a spiritual realm--where
one's soul would dwell upon death.

--School of the Epicureans

  The Stoics stressed an ascetic lifestyle, arguing that one should submerge
one's feelings--including those of pleasure--in order to find happiness. In
contrast, Epicurus (c 342-270 B.C.E.) taught that one should search after 
pleasure in order to find happiness!  To Epicurus, this did not mean living a
materialistic, hedonistic life.  For the temporary pleasures of the debauched
man will be counter-balanced by pain and other bad side-effects.

  Instead, a moderate satisfaction of life's physical pleasures was considered
the goal of mankind.  Even better, was the sober reflection on the joys of 
life's simple pleasures. When Epicurus was an old man, and suffering from an 
agonizing stomach disorder, he claimed that his philosophies--which included 
calling up memories of his friends and beautiful thoughts--helped him to find 
peace and pleasure, despite his weak and suffering body.

  Epicurus taught Democritus' philosophy that the universe is comprised of
matter (atoms), removing supernatural causes from the nature of the world. 
Epicurus accepted the existence of the gods, although he taught that they 
were too remote and superior to humans to pay much attention to them. Still, 
it was important for mankind to model their lifestyles after them, so as to 
strive for the highest perfection.  One has no cause to fear the gods--as 
they never interfere anyway with the affairs of humans.  Therefore, the 
supreme goal of man should be tranquility of mind and individual happiness. 
As with the Stoics, Epicurus believed that the soul is material and therefore 
cannot survive death.

View of the Universe of Stoic and Platonic Philosophy--
And the Explanation of Evil in the World Created by a Good God

   The Greek Stoics believed that the structure and order of the universe
was fashioned out of chaos by a divine, rational force--the "Logos", (meaning
Word) which was in essence, a divine spirit originating from a Higher Being.
Many Greek philosophers envisioned a hierarchy of gods, with a Supreme
God at the top, and lesser gods at lower levels.  Some Stoics leaned towards
monotheism, a belief in only one good God.

  To explain the existence of evil, many Greek Stoics came to believe
that evil represented the ABSENCE or distance of this one good God from
His creation. That is, evil was NOT explained as arising from another
supernatural, evil force (such as a Devil). Instead, evil was due to the
inherent corrupting nature of MATTER. Humans began as perfect spiritual
energy, which at birth was trapped into a physical, material body.  It
was this materialism that DRAGGED down humans into evil.  Only by utilizing
one's mind to overcome their base, material side, could one prepare one's
soul to float upwards upon death towards the higher realms--where it could
dwell with the perfect, pure God.

  Plato had suggested a different reason why the world had become inherently
corrupt and evil in nature. (Plato had studied with the magi in Babylonia,
and was probably influenced by Persian dualism). In his work TIMAEUS, Plato
surmised that the  world was perhaps created by a lower level, evil divine
being (called the "Demiurge")-- who stood in opposition to the all-good,
higher level God of the universe.

  In the first centuries C.E., the Stoic belief in the Logos had merged with
the Platonic belief of a demiurge, forming a popular view of a universe
comprised of a perfect being at the top of the cosmos-- and the lower realms
(including the earth) under the control of an evil demiurge. The Creator
was sometimes called the "First Archon" (meaning the first ruler) and
the lesser evil divine beings below him were called "archons", "powers",
or "authorities".

  The celestial configurations in the sky of the sun, planets, and stars,
represented the path that each individual's soul had taken in its descent
into its body on earth.  These same celestial forces would continue exerting
an influence on the life of the soul on earth.  (This formed the basis for
the Greek belief in astrology, whereby the astrological signs under which a
person was born, could be studied and used to predict the future of that
individual). Some mystics claimed they had powers to "contact" friendly lower
beings or forces, who were believed to exist in the realm below the moon.

Religion Following the Conquest of Alexander the Great

  Greek philosophy and religion reached their height, after Alexander the
Great's empire (320 B.C.E.) exported these ideas throughout his empire. During
the next centuries, many religions met up with, and were in turn, transformed
by the Greek cosmic view of the universe. Local deities were encouraged to be
viewed as cosmic beings.   Whenever possible, two gods worshipped by two
separate communities, were declared to be the "same" god--just worshipped
locally under different names.

  In its encounter with so many other distant, foreign cultures, hellenization,
in turn, also absorbed within itself some of the beliefs it met up with--such
as outlooks from Mithraism and Gnosticism. These Oriental religions held a
deep contempt for this world, and looked to a personal savior to find spiritual
salvation. In the process, many diverse beliefs of this age were brought
together and reinterpreted through a general Greek framework of cosmic destiny
to form rich new variations of religious beliefs. Some historians have argued
that, following the conquests of Alexander, the hellenized world was influenced
as much (if not more) by Oriental religions-- than the latter by Greek
philosophy and culture!

  The ancient Greeks already had their mystical philosophies--exemplified by
the Pythagoreans, Platonists, and Stoics among intellectuals, and the various
mystery religious cults among the masses.  With the introduction of Oriental
ideas--such as Mithraism and Gnosticism--there evolved a pessimistic outlook
towards improving the world.  The popularity of astrology introduced by the
Chaldeans replaced the scientific paradigm of the world with one that was
controlled by astral forces--be they gods or other divine emanations. There
was a general decline in democratic ideals, and in its place a trend towards
authoritarian rule. In such an environment, science and reason declined
in the second and first centuries B.C.E., relative to earlier centuries.

  There were of course important exceptions of Greeks who carried on the
tradition of science and philosophy, such as Hero of Alexandria (c. 62 C.E.)
who invented the first steam engine.  However, the sciences became intertwined
more and more with Greek Platonic mysticism--and less and less concerned with
scientific measurements and experiment.  Thus, once Hero had completed the
design for his steam engine, there was a lack of interest in actually
constructing it. (See Section V, Chapter 4 on the Library at Alexandria.)

Religion Following the Conquest of the Hellenized World by the Roman Empire

    The Hellenist world was militarily defeated by Roman armies in 31 B.C.E..
Still, their culture was so popular and respected, that much of it was adopted
by their captors. The Romans absorbed much of the vast culture of the Greeks--
notably their philosophy, art, literature, architecture, jurisprudence, and
medicine. Indeed, Greek tutors and physicians were in great demand by the
Romans. Even the Greek system of gods were taken, although the names were
merged together with those of native Roman deities.

   Roman culture showed one important difference over that of the early Greeks.
Strongly stressing duty to society and the honor of the traditional gods, the
Romans never shared the same zeal for philosophy as did the Greeks. Thus,
there was missing within Roman society that creative drive to expand the
frontiers of mankind's knowledge.  For this reason, the Romans made relatively
few contributions in the area of mathematics and the natural sciences--
specializing instead in law, military strategy, and engineering projects
(such as building roads and aqueducts).  Roman art too, was generally less
dynamic and innovative than that of the ancient Greeks.

   During the first century C.E., the early Roman emperors were strongly
influenced by a belief in the Roman pantheon of gods.  Much of the ritual
associated with the worship of the state's gods were often obligatory and
perfunctory in nature--with no strong commitment felt by the ordinary Roman
citizen. By the second century C.E., the Roman upper educated classes (including
some emperors) began to be influenced by Greek stoicism--which taught that
human meaning and happiness came from voluntary obedience to natural law.
The brotherhood of all men, a favorite Stoic doctrine, was applied to all
who received Roman citizenship. Stoicism preached the love of truth and
justice for virtue's sake, practiced self control over temptations of greed
and sin, and urged obedience to the conscience and voice of duty.

   Because of Stoicism's emphasis on ethics, both natural (scientific)
inquiry and metaphysics were subservient to a philosophy that stressed
high moral conduct and good living. One's station in birth was unimportant,
for all men were considered equal under the eternal natural law. Thus BOTH
the slave Epictetus (c 60-120 C.E.) and the emperor Marcus Aurelius (121-180 
C.E.) were BOTH highly revered Stoic writers.  Stoics worshiped the cosmos as 
the handiwork a divine Providence, who ordains all that happens for the ultimate
good.  Therefore, submission of one's own will, and stoic acceptance of one's
duty in life, was equivalent to placing oneself in harmony with the will of God.

  Stoicism had a tremendous influence on Roman law and government, because
many Roman officials, especially during the second and third centuries C.E.,
were Stoics. During this time, Roman law became more humane and more
willing to address the rights of all men. Roman slaves gained more legal
protections from their masters, and emancipation became common.

   Still, Stoicism did not appeal to most of the common people, probably
because it was too impersonal and over-rational.  The people wanted assurances
that a god existed who was interested in THEIR individual problems--instead of
learning abstract principles of eternal law.  Seeing the suffering and pain
in this world, they became attracted to the ever popular sects of the mystery
religions, which promised their members eternal life.

  Neoplatonic (or the "new" Platonic) philosophy became a powerful force
during Roman times. Neoplatonism was founded by Plotinus the Alexandrian
(d 270 C.E.), and popularized by other third and fourth century philosophers--
such as Porphyry (d. 300 C.E.) and Iamblichus (d. 330 C.E.), Plotinus taught
Plato's view that there was an eternal heaven that consisted of several
levels.  The highest Being--that of the One or Good God (who is indescribable
and infinite) lived in the highest heaven. The next level was that of the
"nous" or pure intellect and reason (compared to Plato's concept of Ideas).
Next was the world of the souls, followed by the world that is perceived by
the senses.  At the lowest level was matter, which was contaminated and evil.

  The role of the philosopher was--through contemplation and purification--to
cleanse one's soul so that upon death, it would float upwards to the highest
level and unite with the One, Good God in eternal bliss.  Astrological
interpretations, magical rites and asceticism were part of the routine
of the Neo-platonic philosopher. The biography of Iamblichus written by a
Neo-platonic chronicler, is as full of stories of the miraculous, as
contemporary Christian writings on the early saints. (W. C. Dampier, A
HISTORY OF SCIENCE, AND ITS RELATIONS WITH PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION, Cambridge
University Press, Great Britain, 1929, p62. Here Dampier specifically compares
Athanasius's work on the life of St. Anthony).