SECTION VI Chapter 7. Christian Views Towards the Jews "Pilate saith unto them, What shall I do with Jesus which is called Christ? They all [the Jews] say unto him, Let him be crucified...Then answered all the people, and said, His blood be on us, and on our children." --Matthew 27:22,25 "It is a wonderful thing, and worthy of particular attention, to see this Jewish people existing so many years in perpetual misery, it being necessary as a proof of Jesus Christ, both that they should exist to prove Him, and that they should be miserable because they crucified Him". --Blaise Pascal (PENSEES, No. 640) Did the Jews "REALLY" Kill Jesus? The earliest converts to Christianity appear to have come from BOTH Jews and the Greeks. We also know from verses in Acts that the earliest Christians apparently worshiped freely in Jerusalem. However, some forty to a hundred years later, when the gospels were being composed, outright hostility had already broken out between Jews and Christians. By the third and fourth century C.E., Christians began blaming Jews for the crime of "deicide" or the killing of the deity (meaning Jesus the "Son of God"). It was after this time, that Jews faced their worst persecutions ever--at the hands of Christians, whose founder had been born a good Jew (and some would argue, had died a good Jew). In the next section, we shall examine in more detail if Jews really were personally responsible for the crucifixion of Jesus Christ--and trace the history of the relations between Jews and Christians. Pauline references to Jews As Paul's epistles are believed to be among the earliest writings in the New Testament--roughly thirty or more years EARLIER than the gospel writings of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John--we will begin here in the search for references to the Jews. Typically, throughout his letters, Paul blames evil cosmic beings for the bondage of mankind and the crucifixion of Christ: "So with us; when we were children were slave to the elemental spirits of the universe...Formerly when you did not know God, you were in bondage to beings that by nature are no [real] gods; but now that you have come to know God, how can you turn back again to the weak and beggarly elemental spirits, whose slaves you want to be once more?" (see Galatians 4:3,8-9) In his letters, Paul typically describes Jesus as being "crucified" or "delivered up" to these evil forces. Take the following passage from 1 Corinthians: ".. we speak the wisdom of God in a mystery, even the hidden wisdom which God ordained before the world unto our glory. Which none of the PRINCES OF THIS WORLD knew; for had they known it, they would not have crucified the Lord of glory...But God hath revealed them unto us by his Spirit: for the Spirit searcheth all things, yea, the deep things of God." (1 Corinthians 2:7-10) There is one exception! In 1 Thessalonians 2:14-15, Paul states that Jesus was "killed by the Jews". This verse has been questioned as a later interpolation by many scholars. I have included this passage below, while highlighting the section which is questioned as authentic: "For ye, brethren, become followers of the churches of God which is Judea are in Christ Jesus: for ye also have suffered like things of your own countrymen, EVEN AS THEY HAVE OF THE JEWS: WHO BOTH KILLED THE LORD JESUS, AND THEIR OWN PROPHETS, AND HAVE PERSECUTED US; AND THEY PLEASE NOT GOD, AND ARE CONTRARY TO ALL MEN: FORBIDDING US TO SPEAK TO THE GENTILES THAT THEY MIGHT BE SAVED, TO FILL UP THEIR SINS ALWAY: FOR THE WRATH IS COME UPON THEM TO THE UTTERMOST. (1 Thessalonians 2:14-16) Reasons for Questioning the 1 Thess 2:14-16 Passages as Authentic There are several reasons why scholars have questioned whether the 1 Thessalonian passages were really written by Paul. First of all: Paul's other writings generally consider the Jews as having a SPECIAL status in God's eyes. Paul believed they would be eventually redeemed. For example, in Romans 11:2, Paul stated: "God has not rejected the people which he acknowledged of old as his own" and in Romans 25:6 again Paul states that God will "save all Israel" in the completion of time. Secondly the reference in 1 Thess.: "for the wrath is come upon them to the uttermost" seems to reference an event whereby the Jews have ALREADY experienced some terrible punishment from God. As we have seen earlier, the Defeat of the Jews during the Revolt of 66-69 C.E., and the destruction of the Temple at Jerusalem were largely considered by Christians to be the deserved punishment of the Jews for not accepting Jesus. However, this event occurred decades AFTER Paul was dead! (G.A. Wells, THE HISTORICAL EVIDENCE FOR JESUS, Prometheus Books: 1982, p 24-5) Other Questionable References to Jewish Complicity in Paul's Epistles? When Paul is describing the Last Supper, or Eucharist in 1 Corinthians, the RSV version of the Bible states that Jesus spoke these words, "on the night he was BETRAYED" (emphasis mine.) However a better translation of the Greek would be to say on the "night he was given up" (ibid p 26). Paul never refers to any real historical situation of a betrayal or even an arrest. Elsewhere, Paul states (literally translated from the Greek) that Jesus was "delivered for us all"(Romans 8:32), "he was delivered to death for our misdeeds" (Romans 4:25) and that Jesus "delivered himself for me". (Galations 2:20) (Ibid). The image conjured up in the mind (and emphasis on the word "delivered") is reminiscent of Isaiah's famous passage (Isaiah 53:2 of the Septuagint) that the "suffering servant" who "bore the sins of the many and was DELIVERED because of their iniquities." (emphasis mine.) Gospel References to Jewish Complicity in the Death of Jesus. In the four gospels of the New Testament and in Acts, it is repeatedly stated that Jesus was "killed by the Jews"! --Mark As we have seen, by the time that Mark wrote his early gospel on the life of Jesus, relations between Jews and Christians had significantly deteriorated to the point where there was probably serious infighting between the two groups. Conservative Jews probably looked to "impure" Jewish groups such as the Christians as the reason why they were not able to invoke their ancient covenants to gain God's held against the pagans. After the Jews lost the war with the Romans in the Revolt of 66-70 C.E., Christians were also anxious to disassociate their messiah with Jewish revolutionary activity against Rome. Jews by this time (especially after gentile concepts had entered into the early Christian Church) had repudiated the Christian claim of Jesus' messiahship. Early Christians thought Jews to be incredibly stupid for their refusal to believe in Jesus during the first century C.E., and therefore could easily have projected backwards in time that they acted the same way during Jesus' ministry. Mark was likely injecting his own personal hatred against the Jews into his gospel. Possibly, Mark felt he also had support from Paul's letters: Paul had written that his attitude towards Jewish law was that of a Pharisee. Paul was also known to have been an early persecutor of Christians. Thus to Mark, this could have meant that all Pharisees (who were now the official representatives of Judaism) were early persecutors of Jesus. If Jesus was involved in messianic/revolutionary activity in Palestine, it is likely that he was opposed by the Sadduccees, whose privileged positions were dependant on keeping the peace with the Romans. In Mark, however, there is no reported confrontation with the Sadduccees--ONLY Pharisees. According to the Jewish scholar Hyam Maccoby there are clearly scenes where any antagonism between Jesus and the Jews-- MUST have been only with the Sadduccees. For example, in Mark 3:6, we are told how the Pharisees "began plotting against [Jesus] with the partisans of Herod ...". However, as partisans of Herod, this almost certainly could have only been the Sadduccees, who were after all the ruling Jewish class of the time-- and NOT the Pharisees. (Maccoby, op. cit, p 34) Mark also has to explain why the Jews were not aware of Jesus' divine nature since they were the closest eyewitnesses to Jesus' ministry. Mark thus develops the "secrecy" theme throughout his gospel whereby Jesus purportedly tells his disciples that he has chosen to teach in parables "lest haply they should turn again, and it should be forgiven them. (see Mark 4:11-12) Mark carefully has Jesus instruct his disciples not to tell the others of his miracles. Even when demons cry out, 'You are the Son of God!' Jesus orders them not to make him known' (Mark 3:11-12) --Matthew It is accepted by nearly ALL scholars that Mark was used by Matthew as one of his primary texts in composing his gospel. Unlike Mark, though Matthew does not claim that Jesus kept his ministry a secret. Instead, according to Matthew, Jesus was specifically sent ONLY to the Jews, and his miracles and teachings were performed in PUBLIC. Matthew also portrays the Pharisees as villains who oppose Jesus throughout his ministry. Hyam Maccoby has demonstrated how in one case, Matthew appears to have altered a story in Mark to purposefully turn it into an antagonistic scene with the Pharisees. That is, the following scene in Mark depicts basically a friendly exchange between Jesus and a lawyer: "Then one of the lawyers, who had been listening to these [Jesus'] discussions, and had noted how well he answered, came forward and asked him, 'Which commandment is first of all?' Jesus answered, 'The first is "Hear O Israel: the Lord our God is the only Lord; loved the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your mind, and with all your strength. The second is this, 'Love your neighbour as yourself'... The lawyer then said to him, 'Well said, Master, You are right in saying that God is one and beside him there is no other. And to love him with all your heart, all your understanding, and all your strength, and love your neighbor as yourself--that is far more than any burnt offerings or sacrifices.' " When Jesus saw how sensibly he answered, he said to him, 'You are not far from the kingdom of God.'" (Mark 12:28-34) In the gospel of Matthew, the issue is the same, but now it is conniving Pharisees who submit the question in order to "test" Jesus: "Hearing that he had silenced the Sadducees, the Pharisees met together, and one of their number tested him with the question: 'Master, which is the greatest commandment in the Law?'... (the rest of the text follows Mark)." (see Matthew 22:34-35) --Luke One reason, we know that at least SOME Pharisees were non-hostile, even FRIENDLY to Jesus and his early followers, is due to the reporting by the gospel writer, Luke-- In Luke 13:31, a number of Pharisees came to Jesus and WARNED him to leave, for Herod wanted to kill him. Thus, unlike the other gospel writers, Luke seems to be unconcerned with depicting ALL Jews as evil! (footnote: Some Christian writers, not content with this implication of "friendly" Jews, have speculated that the Pharisees MUST have been trying to trick Jesus into leaving for Jerusalem where it would in fact be easier for the authorities to capture him.) Luke also wrote how Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus (who were described as Pharisees and members of the Sanhedren) thought highly enough of Jesus to see that he was given a decent burial after his execution. The book of Acts (also written by Luke) also depicts some scenes where Pharisees are friendly to Jesus. (These include the passage that "many Jews believed", and secondly the defense of the early Christians in the Sanhedren courts by one of the greatest known Pharisaic rabbis of him time, Gamaliel (discussed below). Some groups of Jews are shown to have responded to Jesus' preachings-- such as Elizabeth, Simeon, and Anna (see Luke 1:41-4;2:25-38). At other times, in Acts, Luke goes even further in describing many Jews who believed and became Christians. However, Jesus also warns against those Jews who would drag his followers "before the synagogues and rulers and authorities". When Jesus gave his sermons before the multitudes, and generally blessed the poor, he included the following: "Blessed are you when men hate you, when they exclude you and revile you and cast out your name as evil, on account of the Son of Man. Rejoice in that day...for so did THEIR fathers to the prophets." (Luke 6:23) Thus, The gospel of Luke does contain its share of scathing attacks on some of the "Pharisees" of the time. Possibly one reason why Luke contains BOTH favorable and unfavorable reports on the Jews, is that he was merely faithfully following his text references in composing his gospel. The negative references could have easily have come from Mark (and possibly other oral traditions). The point is that Luke was not theologically predisposed towards leaving out any FAVORABLE references on Jews that he had. (This does not appear to be the case with the other three gospel writers, who consistently caricature the Jews for their own theological purposes--frequently distorting true Jewish beliefs and practices in the process.) Luke presents Christianity as a continuation of Judaism. Jesus was sent in fulfillment of the prophecies in the Jewish Torah. Like Matthew, Luke's Jesus performs his miracles in public. When Jesus' disciples did not understand him anyway, this was part of God's Plan: "But they did not understand this saying [of Jesus], and it was concealed from them, that they should not perceive it." [Luke 18:34] --John According to the gospel of John, the reason why the Jews are unaware of the upper realm of the one God, is because their father, the Devil, is the ruler of this world (John 8:44). For this reason, John is not concerned to show that Jesus fulfilled Jewish prophecies of his coming. The Jews taunt Jesus how he cannot be the messiah because no scriptures predict that the messiah would come from Galilee. (see John 7:40-42,52) John shows the irony how Jesus instead had descended to earth from heaven from the Father. When Jesus is heralded as a Jewish messiah upon his entry into Jerusalem, John makes it clear that Jesus does not perceive himself as Jewish. He regards the Law as "their" law (see John 10: 34; John 15:25) Likewise when Jesus is interrogated by Pilate, he portrays the Jews as the ENEMY when he says "If my kingship were of this world, my servants would fight that I might not be handed over to the Jews" (John 18:36) Did the Jews Persecute the Apostles and Other Early Christians in Jerusalem? Chapter 8 of the book of Acts (which purports to be the history of the early Christian church) begins with the following: "This was the beginning of a time of violent persecution for the church in Jerusalem and all except the apostles were scattered over the country districts of Judea and Samaria." As we have seen, the book of Acts never DIRECTLY acknowledges that the early Christian church was HEADQUARTERED in Jerusalem under the leadership of Jesus' brother, James. Instead it is from the letters of St. Paul, that we are informed that the "pillars of the church"--Peter, James, and John reside in Jerusalem--and that James was the "brethren" of Jesus. Acts does contain a reference to some important figure named James who resided in Jerusalem and made important decisions on Christian doctrine--However he is never identified directly, and is always in the shadow of the hero of Acts--St. Paul. We have already established that the Jerusalem Christian community appeared to worship openly in the Temple, and that its leadership continued to make important doctrinal decisions, at least during the lifetime of St. Paul-- And yet, the book of Acts describes two cases, where early Christians were persecuted for their beliefs--the first took place against Stephen, and the other was against the apostle Peter. Thus, the question we shall focus on here is this: Since the apostles appeared to worship openly in Jerusalem--how was it that SOME Christians were persecuted, while others were left alone? If there was indeed an official policy of persecution by the Jews of the church during the time, the proposed answer must also explain why it was that the LEADERS (including James) were tolerated during the early years in Jerusalem after Jesus' crucifixion, while others-- notably Stephen and Peter, were instead persecuted. (Footnote: James was reportedly killed by the Sadduccean High Priest-- but this action angered the Pharisees, who possibly were responsible for his removal from office.) One hypothesis holds that some of Jesus' disciples--such as James and John were traditional Jews--while Stephen and others were hellenized Jews-- who accordingly spoke out for a break with Jewish laws and traditions. According to this theory, Stephen insulted the Jews regarding the worth of their religion, and they consequently stoned him to death in a fit of anger. Another hypothesis has it that Stephen, like Jesus did NOT insult the Jews, but instead angered the High Priest and his Sadduccean followers by preaching that Jesus would return, thus (either directly or indirectly) implying the defeat of the Romans and the Jewish Sadducean rulers, who were co-operating with the Romans. Thus the charges directed against Stephen would have been of a POLITICAL subversive nature, and not the reported religious one. Unlike both Peter and Jesus, there appears to have been no formal Sanhedren trial. This has led some scholars to speculate that Stephen was not tried at all, but lynched, possibly by a secret Jewish henchmen reporting directly to the High Priest. It will be recalled that the High Priest was a member of the Sadduccees-- the wealthy, aristocracy part of the Jews who were very interested in keeping perceived revolutionary activity against the Romans down to a minimum. The Sadduccees were a very tiny minority of Jews. It was not until AFTER the Jewish Wars with the Roman Empire in 66 and 132 C.E., that the Pharisees became the official spokesmen for the Jewish people--and hence the Jewish religion. The Trial of Peter There is some evidence that Peter was arrested on POLITICAL charges: According to Acts, it is the Sadduccess who arrest Peter--while the Pharisees, under the leadership of Rabbi Gamaliel actually comes to the defense of Peter and help to win his release: According to Acts, Peter is warned by the "High Priest" not to preach about Jesus, but does so anyway. I am quoting what happens from ACTS: "Then the High Priest and his colleagues, the SADDUCEAN party as it was, were goaded into action by jealousy. They proceeded to arrest the apostles, and put them into official custody.' At this point they are tried in the Sanhedren court where Peter replies to their order to stop preaching, with: "We must obey God rather than men." Then, "This touched them on the raw, and they wanted to put them to death. But a member of the Council rose to his feet, a PHARISEE called Gamaliel, a teacher of the law held in high regard by all the people. He moved that the men be put outside for a while. Then he said, 'Men of Israel, be cautious in deciding what to do with these men. Some time ago Theudas came forward, claiming to be somebody, and a number of men, about four hundred, joined him. but he was killed and his whole following was broken up and disappeared. After him came Judas the Galilean at the time of the census; he induced some people to revolt under his leadership, but he too perished and his whole following was scattered. And so now: keep clear of these men, I tell you; leave them alone. For if this idea of theirs or its execution is of human origin, it will collapse; but if it is from God, you will never be able to put them down, and you risk finding yourselves at war with God.' They took his advice. They sent for the apostles and had them flogged; and they ordered them to give up speaking in the name of Jesus, and discharged them. So the apostles went out from the Council rejoicing that they had been found worthy to suffer indignity for the Sake of his Name." (emphasis mine) The scene is described as taking place in "the full senate of the Israelite nation' which would have to be the Sanhedren court. In the opening scene, Peter's actions are described as "touch[ing] them on the raw". Here, "they" would have to mean the Sadduccees since it was clearly stated earlier that it was the High Priest and the Sadduccees who had arrested them. Note also, that it was a "Pharisee" named Gamaliel-- who was a person "held in high regard by all the people", that came to the rescue of the Christians. Gamaliel never condemns Peter and his companions for committing any crime against the Jewish religion. Instead, he compares the apostles to other revolutionary leaders who had directed messianic movements against the Empire of Rome! This would strongly indicate Peter and his comrades were also held for POLITICAL reasons BY THE SADDUCCEES. (The Jewish historian Josephus confirms that Judas of Galilee was a messianic leader who led a revolt against Rome. Theudas is also mentioned by Josephus as a prophet who led a group of Jews into the wilderness, expecting a miracle from God. However this latter movement occurred some ten years AFTER when this trial took place. (Some scholars therefore think there was another messianic leader named "Theudas" who is referred to here, instead of Luke being a little confused on his history). Gamaliel also shows the true nature of the Pharisees towards messianic hopefuls such as the Christians is favorable, such as when he says "...but if it is from God, you will never be able to put them down, and you risk finding yourselves at war with God.' As Gamiliel was held in high repute by the people, this possibly expresses the 'real attitude' of the majority of the Jews towards Christians in the 30-50's C.E. The historian Josephus seems to also support the theory that that Pharisees (at least initially) were predisposed favorably towards the Jewish Christians. Although his text appears somewhat vague, it would seem to indicate that after the Sadducean High Priest had James executed, that the Pharisees protested the action, which led to the High Priest's subsequent removal. (Josephus seems to indicate that this action may have led to the appointment of a WEAKER High Priest, that was unable to halt the Revolt of 66 C.E.) Early Christians Attitude Towards the Jews By the time of the gospel writers, relations between Jews and Christians had seriously deteriorated. After the Jewish-Roman war of 66-70 C.E., Christians were anxious to distance themselves from their Jewish "loser" counterparts and their "revolutionary", fanatical image within the Roman Empire. In looking for a "cause" for the sound defeat and suffering of the Jews, it would be natural for early Christians to argue that this resulted from Jews not accepting Jesus as their messiah. Even as early though as 50 C.E., there is evidence that SOME conservative Jews were violently opposed to at least the Pauline (not necessarily the Jewish) version in Christianity. There exists a brief reference in Suetonius' LIFE OF CLAUDIUS that states "Since the Jews continually made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, Claudius expelled them from Rome." (cf. Acts xviii, 2). Here it is assumed "Chrestus" refers to Christians. We also know from Paul's letters, that there was a strong gentile Christian community living in Rome during this time. After 70 C.E., the Pharisees became the new spokesmen for Judaism. (With the Temple destroyed, the Sadduccees lost their authority). To explain the "cause" of why God had not come to their aid during the Jewish-Roman war of 66-70 C.E., and the destruction of the Temple, some Jews attributed their defeat to their countrymen for not perfectly complying with God's commandments. It is known that after their loss, the Pharisees reorganized to "purify" the Jewish religion from Greek and other pagan influences. (Indeed it was during this time, that the Old Testament texts were selected for the Jewish Bible). Jewish Christians became targeted as a corrupting element within the newly reformed Judaism. By the year 85 C.E., the Jewish liturgy within the synagogues were rewritten to include a curse on "heretics"--which was likely a specific reference to Jewish Christians. It was around this time that Jewish Christians were officially expelled from the Jewish synagogues. In response, the excommunicated Jewish Christian community turned their anger against the current Jewish leaders--the Pharisees. Rabbinic Judaism Following the second Jewish revolt against the Romans in 132 C.E. (see Section I, Chapter 8), local rabbis redefined Judaism whereby it was no longer dependent on the Temple, the priesthood, or political autonomy from foreign rule. The Romans, seeing that the insurrection had been crushed and that Jewish leadership had been replaced by moderate rabbis, relaxed their prohibitions against practicing Judaism, and allowed rabbis to return to Palestine. Under the leadership of Johanan ben Zakkai, Jewish sacrifices and pilgrimages to the Temple were replaced by the study of the Torah, prayer, and pious lifestyles. Jewish doctrine taught that the reward for virtuous living and strict adherence to religious laws (including kosher laws) would initiate the fulfillment of God's promise of messianic deliverance, and with this resurrection of the faithful to participate in the new kingdom on earth. During this time (175-220 C.E.) there was a period of important rabbinic activity--sometime known as the "age of the teachers"--or tannaim. Jewish rabbanic laws and practices became standardized in a corpus of writings which were known as the Mishna (meaning "teaching"). The Mishna was divided into six sections -- covering agriculture, festivals, family living, civil laws, dietary laws, and purification rites. Parallel to the Jewish community in Palestine, a large and prosperous Jewish community was situated in Babylonia, which had found toleration living under Persian rule. The rabbis in Babylonia used their own texts and practices to write down Jewish law. During the later Middle Ages (9th-12th centuries C.E.) the Babylonian version, which became known as the Babylonian Talmud, became accepted in most communities as the authoritative version of the Talmud (ie over the Palestinian Talmud). Treatment of the Jews by the Early Christian Fathers Prior to Constantine and his inaugeration of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire, Jews were one of many minority sects that lived in the realm. Jews were for the most part tolerated during the reign of Constantine, although attacks against them stepped up during the upcoming century. During the fourth and fifth centuries, the Christian Fathers (when they weren't busy fighting each other) hurled violent and bitter verbal attacks against Jews. Some examples: *According to John Chrysostom: "I know that a great number of the faithful have a certain respect for the Jews and hold their ceremonies in reverence. This provokes me to eradicate completely such a disastrous opinion... Since they have disowned the Father, crucified the Son, and rejected the Spirit's help, who would not dare to assert that the synagogue is not a home of demons? God is not worshiped there; it is simply a home of idolatry...The Jews are possessed by demons, they are handed over to impure spirits...Instead of greeting them and addressing them by so much as a work you should turn away from them as from the pest and a plague of the human race." *St. Jerome called Jews "vipers" and "cursers of Christians". St. Jerome linked Jews with the concept of the anti-Christ--the apocalyptic incarnation of evil. (In a Strausbourg picture book entitled THE ANTICHRIST (1480), it is typically Jews who flock around the antichrist, proclaiming in satanic reverence, "Yea, God hath come!" (Heiko A. Oberman, THE ROOTS OF ANTI-SEMITISM, translated by James I. Porter, (Fortress Press translation, 1984), p 42) *It was St. Jerome's translation of the Bible into Latin (known as the Vulgate) that incorrectly took the Hebrew verse of Exodus 34:29,35: "and behold the skin of his [Moses'] face sent forth beams" and mistranslated this as: "and behold his face had horns." (That is, the Hebrew word karan meaning "was radiant" was confused with keren, which means "horn".) As a consequence of this error, paintings and carvings of the Jews during the Middle Ages depicted ALL Jews as having horns--and the implication was that they were associated with the Devil himself. Jews during the Dark Ages in Europe Once Christianity became the official state religion of the Roman Empire, imperial laws were enacted to crack down on the Jews. The law codes of Theodosius and later Justinian prohibited Jews from participating in all political and military functions, or to intermarry with Christians. Under Justin (518-27), the Jews had been forbidden any legal rights--such as establishing wills or giving testimony in courts of law. Although second class citizens, they were tolerated (unlike the pagans, who were forbidden to openly practice their ancient religions--upon penalty of death). St. Augustine was partly responsible for Jews (as opposed to pagans and even "heretical" Christian sects) being tolerated. Augustine believed that the Jews had a special role to play in God's divine plan for human salvation. After all, they had been the original "Chosen People" in the Old Testament. Christian imperial laws were already punishing Jews for their refusal to acknowledge the truth about Jesus Christ. It was believed that perhaps the Second Coming had been delayed until the Jews repented and converted en masse. However, if there were no Jews, Augustine reasoned, there could be NO salvation for mankind--Thus Jews needed to be kept alive so that they could be converted. (Jeffrey Richards, SEX, DISSIDENCE AND DAMNATION, (Routledge, London,1990) p 93). The Catholic Church followed St. Augustine's lead in passively allowing Jews to live within Christian territory. For example, the letters of Pope Gregory the Great (590-605 C.E.) show that the Jews were forbidden to intermarry, to make new converts, to build new synagogues, to hold office, or make bequests. Yet the Church did not urge persecution, nor the burning of synagogues during this period. With the collapse of the Roman Empire in the west, there is evidence that in some areas under the new barbarian fiefdoms, that the Jews were protected and even prospered. In an era when the majority of people were illiterate, Jews were especially valued for their skills as merchants, doctors, and diplomats--and thus often found protection from barbarian secular rulers (although this varied from ruler to ruler.) Following the rise of the Carolingians under Charlemagne (8th-10th, Jews generally experienced toleration, and large Jewish communities flourished in France and Germany during this time. After the Millennium (1000 C.E.) and the Period of the Crusades Historically-speaking, serious Christian pogroms against the Jews began after the first millennium (1000 C.E.) when it became apparent that the anticipated Second Coming of Jesus was not appearing soon. The expectation of a "soon-to-be" transition into the final perfect age aroused new interest in purifying and Christianizing Europe in preparation for the "End". This heightened the importance of converting the Jews once and for all! The success of the Arabs in taking over much of the holy lands from the Eastern Roman Empire, also played an important role in the new persecutions and pograms against the Jews. Rumors began to circulate around 1010 that the Jews had assisted the Saracen Arabs in destroying the Holy Sepulchre and beheading the Christian patriarch in Jerusalem. Massacres of Jews resulted in Orleans, Rouen, Limoges, the Rhineland, and Rome. (Jeffrey Richards, SEX, DISSIDENCE AND DAMNATION, (Routledge, London,1990) p 90). When wandering preachers began stirring up religious crusades to fight the Arabs, Jews were frequently attacked first, as "practice" by those who were too far away from the Holy Land to kill the "heathen" Arabs. There are some reports where some bishops opened up their castles to give the Jews protection. However, sometimes bishops only agreed to provide protection if the Jews would convert. This sometimes led to tragedy. It is known that after the Jewish survivors of the Worms massacre went to Bishop Adalbert for assistance, he demanded a full conversion first. The desperate Jews committed suicide instead. When the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, learned what was happening, he ordered all Jews to be protected from the forced conversions and massacres. This did not halt the massacres however, because whenever a new crusade was being preached, the religious hysteria frequently spilled over into new violence against Jewish communities that were nearby. Some fervent preachers declared the Jews as WORSE enemies of Christendom than the Arabs. For example, Abbot Peter of Cluny--although not DIRECTLY calling for massacres against the Jews, created the justification for pogroms against Jews when he declared: "What is the good of going to the end of the world at great loss of men and money to fight the Saracens when we permit among us other infidels who are a thousand times more guilty towards Christ than the Mohammedans." Although further massacres followed, the officials became better prepared in protecting some of their Jewish communities. One successful strategy, used for example by St. Bernard of Clairvaux, was to argue that Christians should FIRST try to CONVERT the Jews, BEFORE resorting to killing them. Jewish communities basically restructured themselves along two lines in a response to increased threats and dangers to them. First, Jews began moving to segregated areas, called ghettos, so that they could remain under the protection of European secular leaders. (Note: The actual term "ghetto" was not used until 1517 in Venice.) Secondly, now that their main occupation as merchants had become too dangerous, many Jews entered into a new profession-- that of money lending--which the Catholic Church had forbidden Christians to get into, because any charging of interest was considered to be usury. The result of both of these developments was to make Jews even more unpopular-- first for financial activities brought about from money lending, and secondly for their "exclusiveness" in living in their own alien cultures, apart from the country in which they lived in. The formation of the institution of the Inquisition to stamp out all heresy, marked an increased level in religious persecutions against the Jews. During this time, Judaism was portrayed as a perversion of the original worship of God by Jews in the days of the Old Testament. (In this way, Church authorities explained how their new philosophy towards Jews differed from that which had been earlier envisioned by St. Augustine.) (Jeffrey Richards, op cit, p 114, 96) Even by the late twelfth century, Pope Innocent III bitterly complained to King Philip Augustus of France regarding the "insolence" and "excesses" of the Jews--in particular their practice of usury, their construction of new synagogues, their use of Christian servants, and their blaspheming against Christ, especially around Easter time. He thundered against the protection given by Christian princes to the Jews, as can be seen in his letter to the Count of Nevers: "The Jews like the fratricide Cain are doomed to wander through the earth as fugitives and vagabonds, and their faces must be covered with shame. They are under no circumstances to be protected by Christian princes but are, on the contrary, to be condemned to serfdom. It is therefore discreditable of Christian princes to receive Jews into their towns and villages and to employ them as usurers in order to extort money from Christians." (Jeffrey Richards, op cit, p 94) The Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 ordered all Jews living in Catholic lands to wear distinguishing labels or badges, so that they could be visibly recognized as separate from Christians. Although the colors and style varied from locality to locality, often this took the form of a saffron yellow felt badge worn on the chest. (The Nazis borrowed this idea when they forced Jews to wear the infamous yellow star in the European countries where they maintained power). Sometimes, purges were initiated by ex-Jews who had converted into Christianity. In 1236, a Jew who had converted to Christianity told Catholic authorities that the Talmud contained blasphemies against Jesus and insinuations that Jesus was a bastard instead of the son of a Virgin (ie the "missing" father was blasphemously reinterpreted in some Jewish writings to mean that Jesus' father was a Roman soldier--implying that Jesus was therefore illegitimate). In response, all copies of the Jewish Torah were ordered burned in many areas. Most of the purges against the Jews, however, were due to superstition and ignorance. Essentially anyone could begin a wild rumor regarding "deviate" Jewish behavior or activities. The following are some samples of the massacres that occurred against Jews in the later Middle Ages: *The Fourth Lateran Council decreed the doctrine of transubstantiation in 1215 (ie the belief that the wafer and wine eaten during the Last Supper celebration were LITERALLY transformed into the flesh and blood of Jesus.) Soon Jews were accused of STEALING and MUTILATING the wafers that were believed to miraculously turn into the body of Jesus during the mass. That is, it was charged that Jews were RE-ENACTING the crucifixion of Jesus again, by now "piercing" nails through the wafers, so as to "hurt" him again. The alleged discovery of bleeding wafers (for example at Wilsnack) seemed both to confirm the doctrine of Transubstantiation AND to prove Jewish devilry. Over a hundred Jews were killed on this charge in Belitz Germany in 1243. Some 628 Jews were killed in Nuremberg in 1298 under the same charges. In 1337, the entire Jewish population was burned due to this rumor in Deggendorf, Bavaria.(James A Haught, HOLY HORRORS). The last serious case occurred in 1510 in Berlin, when twenty-eight Jews were executed under this charge. (Jeffrey Richards, op cit, p 104) *In 1144, a 12 year old Christian boy was found dead near Norwich, England. The rumor began circulating that the Jews had sacrificed him in one of their religious rituals. (The common belief was that the blood of Christian children was a necessary ingredient for their Passover meal, and that every year, a conference of rabbis convened to select the site for the Christian sacrifice). A monk, Thomas of Monmouth, wrote that the Jews routinely sacrificed Christian children in this manner--and the story spread like wildfire. *In 1171 in Blois, France, after it was reported that a Jew was seen throwing a Christian child into the river, 38 Jewish leaders were sentenced to death--this despite the fact that there were no reported children missing and no body was ever found. The Jewish leaders were given the chance to convert to Christianity to save their lives. They all refused, and were locked into a wooden shed which was burned. *In 1255 the body of a young Christian body named Hugh was found in the well of a Jew. The rumor spread that "the child was first fattened for 10 days with white bread and milk and then almost all the Jews of England were invited to the crucifixion." Eighteen Jews were arrested, tortured, and hanged. (Footnote: In England Jews had also by this time become exclusively associated with money-lending activities. In 1290 Edward I expelled all Jews from England. Occasionally however a few doctors were let in--such as when a Jewish doctor came over to treat Queen Elizabeth I's chicken pox. Jews were not officially permitted to return to England until the reign of Oliver Cromwell.) * In 1285, 180 Jews were burned after a rumor spread that a Christian child had been bled to death in their synagogue. * In 1475 a rumor spread that a Christian child named Simon had been sacrificed in Trent, Italy. Nearly all the Jews of the city were arrested, tortured, and then burned. * In 1491, in the middle of the Spanish Inquisition, Jews were forced to confess that they had sacrificed a Christian child in a cave near La Guardia. All the Jews in the community were killed. "The holy child of La Guardia" became a religious legend--this despite the fact that no such town (not to mention any sacrificed child) could ever be located and confirmed. * When the Black Plague was raging throughout Europe, hysterical Christians accused the Jews of poisoning their wells. The historian Philip Ziegler uncovered as many as 350 separate massacres of Jews by Christians during three years of the Black Plague. The Flagellants (a group of religious fanatics who whipped themselves until they were covered with blood in order for God to forgive the sins of the community and lift the plague), encouraged massacres against the Jewish communities as a means of placating God so that he might halt the plague in CHRISTIAN towns and cities. *Jews were executed for example in Troppau (Bohemia), Treslau, and Vienna on charges of well poisoning. In 1321, Jews were accused of conspiring with lepers and Moslems to poison all the wells in France. This occurred during the background of the 'Shepherd's Crusade' where Christian volunteers destroyed some 120 communities on their violent march through France on the way to the Holy Lands. The "Leper Plot" led to a huge fine of 130,000 livres imposed on the Jews from the parliament in Paris. Jews were subsequently expelled en masse by King Charles IV, but not before some 160 Jews had been burned at Chinon and 40 had committed suicide in Champagne. (Jeffrey Richards, p 103) Jews in Muslim Controlled Territories Still, many Jews were able to move to areas where persecutions against them were less severe. The Muslims were relatively tolerant of Judaism (because Mohammad had shown great respect for it in the Koran). Although there were exceptions, generally, Jews and Muslims were on moderate good terms during this time. Through Muslim culture, Jews also came into contact with Greek philosophy-- and became especially influenced by the rationality and logic of the philosopher Aristotle. Many Jewish scholars set out to harmonize their doctrines with Aristotle's philosophy. During this time, these Jewish communities entered into a "Golden Age" and saw a growth in creativity and learning in such areas as poetry, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and literature. However over time, Jews faced new persecutions in every country that they had tried to settle down in. Christian successes against the Muslims, especially in Spain, meant new persecutions against the Jews. Likewise, the relatively tolerant Muslims were becoming more dogmatic that everyone should convert to Islam. In 1148, Muslim Berber reformers wiped out many Jewish communities in southern Spain in a religious pogrom. Thousands of Jews were forced to move to northern Spain, North Africa, and Egypt into more tolerant Christian or Islamic communities. The effect of religious pogroms served to crush Jewish intellectual centers that had thrived throughout Europe in small enclaves. Many Christian countries also outlawed Jews living in their territories during this time. Jews were expelled from England in 1290, from France in 1306, and from Spain in 1492. Some Jewish communities moved to countries that maintained a more tolerant attitude towards them-- such as Holland and Poland. During this time, Jewish leaders withdrew from contact as much as possible with the rest of the Christian community. They also tended to lean towards conservatism, so as not to antagonize their Christian benefactors in whose countries they wished to live. Jews Under Protestantism Overall, the Jews fared no better under early Protestant reformers, than they had under Catholic persecutions. Early in his career, Martin Luther had condemned the traditional Catholic treatment of the Jews, insisting in his THAT JESUS CHRIST WAS BORN A JEW that "if we really want to help them [the Jews], we must be guided by Christian love, not by popish legalism." Even then, Luther made no attempt to hide his real goal--to persuade at least some Jews to convert over to Protestant Christianity. According to Luther: "For our fools, the popes, bishops, sophists, and monks--the course blockheads!--dealt with the Jews as if they were dogs and not human beings. They have done nothing for them but curse them and seize their wealth. I would advise and beg everybody to deal kindly with the Jews and to instruct them in the Scriptures; in such case we could expect them to come over to us." When Jews did not respond by converting to Lutheranism, Luther raged against the Jews with a fury and viciousness that would later have its echoes in twentieth century Nazism. Now, according to Luther, his solution to the "Jewish problem" was to drive them out of Germany: " ... They are a heavy burden like a plague, pestilence, misfortune...". For those Jews that refused, Luther recommended, "that their synagogues or schools be set on fire... that their houses be broken up and destroyed... and they be put under a roof or stable, like the gypsies...in misery and captivity as they incessantly lament and complain to God about us." The centuries of persecutions against the Jews decimated the population in Western Europe. The historian Dagobert Runes has estimated that as many as 3.5 million Jews died at the hands of Christians during the religious persecutions that lasted through the Dark Ages into the Renaissance. Many Jews converted to Christianity to save themselves. Country after country seized all their possessions, and forced them into exile. Those who survived the persecutions and were not expelled were forced to live in Jewish ghettos, and to wear badges identifying them as Jews. In 1759, a Vatican commission charged with investigating Jewish ritual crimes on Christian children, concluded that such tales were only myths. Still the pogroms continued. For example, in 1801, an Orthodox priest in Bucharest Romania accused the Jews of drinking Christian blood during their rituals. A pogrom followed, that ended with 128 Jews having their throats cut. Jews Turn Towards Mysticism Many Jews began to turn towards mysticism as a possible escape from their hostile, seemingly hopeless situation. Jews had been exposed to gnostic mysticism as far back as ancient Roman times. Interaction with Muslim culture had brought Jews into contact with Muslim mysticism (known as Sufuism), in addition to Greek philosophy. During the Middle Ages, Jewish mysticism found expression in belief in the Kabala (meaning "tradition") which taught of a spiritual realm where contact could be made with God Himself. Special knowledge of Hebrew letters (for example spelling the "real" name of God), angels' names, and the like were believed to protect one against evil spirits which were present everywhere. Mysticism also spawned a number of new Jewish messianic movements during the thirteenth through eighteenth centuries. Jews studying the kabala regularly attempted to make mystical predictions as to when the Messiah would arrive to build a new kingdom on earth for the Jews. In the early centuries, most of these movements were confined to a minority within the Jewish communities. However, in 1666, a self-proclaimed messianic leader named Sabbatai Zevi convinced much of the Jewish community that the "End" was near. In the religious hysteria that followed, many Jews sold all of their possessions in order to march with Zevi on a quest to take over the Holy Land. Arriving first in Constantinople, the would-be messiah was instead arrested by Turkish authorities. After given the choice of death, or conversion to Islam, Sabbatai chose to convert. The movement immediately fell apart, much to the dismay and disillusionment of his followers. At a loss to explain how this could have happened, some Jewish mystics explained this failure as a form of voluntary crucifixion undertaken for the sake of the Jews. In the century that followed, until the beginning of the Enlightenment in the eighteenth century, rabbinic Judaism fell into one of its darkest periods, as new religious pogroms were being waged against them--with no messiah in sight to save them. Jews During the Enlightenment Jews were beneficiaries of the spread of the Enlightenment in England, France, and Germany--with its ideals of equality and human rights. The increase in tolerance meant that Jews found it safer to leave their ghettos and interact again with the Christian world. A number of Jewish philosophers reconciled the local nationalistic aspirations of Judaism to the universal ideals of the Enlightenment. The philosopher Moses Mendelssohn taught that Judaism was but one important manifestation of a universal religion based on reason and high principles. Benedict de Spinoza, a Dutch Jewish philosopher in the late eighteenth century, had also encouraged the belief in a universal religion of nature without renouncing his Jewish heritage. Many Jews embraced the values of the Enlightenment and its emphasis on education and reason. Jews began to enter into highly educated professions in large numbers (relative to their minority status)--becoming for example lawyers, scientists, and doctors. Jews also tended to be highly attracted to liberal, socialist causes that promoted equality and human rights. During the late nineteenth century, liberal Jews formed a "Reform" sect of Judaism in the United States, which emphasized the Enlightenment's views of universality and reason. In conjunction with the Romantic movement, another important Jewish sect arose: "Conservative" Judaism, which took a middle ground position between Orthodoxy and Reform Judaism. Conservative Judaism shared with Reform Judaism a more universal outlook on religion, while still retaining a belief in the special historical importance of Jewish experience and traditions. There was also a strong counter-reaction among ultra-conservative Jews who viewed the Enlightenment as an "Enemy" that was destroying the religious authority of the Torah and Jewish traditions. These fundamentalist Jews believed that their liberal Jewish counterparts were just as bad--if not worse than Jewish apostates who had converted into Christianity. These conservative groups believed that only by strictly adhering to Jewish laws-- the traditional mitzvoth--could a righteous Jewish community trigger God's covenants to them, and thus hasten the coming of the Messiah. Because Jewish tradition predicted a new messianic kingdom on earth following the Exile--and did NOT predict an intermediary period of a Jewish State--many Jewish fundamentalists were strongly opposed to the growing Zionism movement that culminated in the new political State (i.e., Israel). Even today, within Israel, there are fundamentalist Jewish groups who live in isolated communities, and who view Zionism as a hellenistic corruption within Judaism. Some of these groups even refuse to support the state of Israel--such as by serving in the army. During the late nineteenth century, with the wane of the Enlightenment in Europe, Christian anti-Semitic attacks in the form of pogroms (physical attacks involving vandalizing and murder) became frequent, especially throughout Eastern Europe. Anti-semitic feelings also returned strong throughout Western Europe--especially in Germany. Some Jews found relief by immigrating to countries such as the United States. Other Jews began to dream of joining the Jewish movement called Zionism which looked for a national homeland for the Jews in their historical homeland of Judah/Israel. The "Final" Solution The association of many Jews with the Enlightenment was seen by conservative Christian groups as just one more reason for denouncing the movement of the Enlightenment, with its emphasis on tolerance and reason. During the early twentieth century, a surge of fascist, nationalistic feelings in Germany gave power to the Nazi party, which claimed Aryans were the superior master race. Jews became demonized as the cause of all that was wrong in society. A fictitious paper entitled THE PROGOCOLS OF THE ELDERS OF ZION claimed be contain the minutes of Jewish meetings to take over the world. In the 1920's, Henry Ford reprinted excerpts of THE PROTOCOLS in the newspaper. Other rumors of Jewish world dominion came as a result of this forgery (including Richard Nixon's alleged concern about a Jewish monopoly within the media.) The greatest purge against Jews followed during the 1930's and 1940's with Adolf Hitler's death camps. Although the Jews had survived pogroms over a thousand years (largely because there were always other communities around in one country that survived the pogroms in another), Hitler's "Final Solution" decimated Jewish populations in huge regions in Europe. It has been estimated that roughly 2/3s of all Jews in these regions (6 out of 9 million Jews) were exterminated via Hitler's death camps, gas chambers and crematoria. Hitler justified his murderous attacks against the Jews to Bishop Berning of Osnabruch in April 1933, on historical-religious grounds: "As for the Jews, I am just carrying on with the same policy which the Catholic church had adopted for 1500 years." Although Hitler held himself out as Catholic--privately he despised Christianity--and appears to have been interested in reintroducing the old Teutonic mythological gods back into German society. This was done under a "Christian" veneer--with Jesus often portrayed as a strong battle god. The point is, that many conservative Christians were able to COMPROMISE their Christian views together with German mythological themes--to arrive at a vision of Aryan glory and history, as popularized by Richard Wagner and others. No doubt, there were MANY complex forces operating within Hitler's mind. Still, Hitler's writings show that he FULLY understood the powerful psychological appeal, of blaming all the world's problems on ONE scapegoat. Hitler also knew that because of the old religious hatreds against the Jews that targeting them as the "ultimate" scapegoat would be very popular! Hitler associated the Jews with liberalism (including socialism and communism). Although the original bias and hatred against the Jews was no doubt RELIGIOUS in nature, there was possibly a SOCIAL dimension to this as well-- for it was believed that Jews would NEVER culturally accept the ways of the German peoples. Since being Christian was one of the components for being a "true" German, Jews were naturally outsiders. Christian Friedrich Ruhs, a "Volkish" history professor, had argued that because Jews were only loyal to their own "state within the state", they would NEVER be loyal to the CHRISTIAN state. Therefore, Ruhs urged that Jews should always hold merely the status of subjects--and NOT citizens of Germany. Hitler would add, for similar reasons, that Jews should not even enjoy the status as subjects! (Lucy S. Dawidowicz, WAR AGAINST THE JEWS 1933-1945, P 28) It was NOT the racial difference of Jews' darker complexion that set them apart from the blonde Germans. Many native Germans were just as dark as the Jews, including Hitler himself (not to mention that there were blonde, blue-eyed Jews during this time living in Germany). These "darker" Germans patriotically counted themselves among the "Aryans", and not among the "inferior" races of the world. Indeed, Hitler could be very LIBERAL in applying the title of "Aryan" to other groups when it proved politically expedient to do so. For example, during WW II, Germany's allies--the Japanese--were conveniently declared "Aryan". The major component of the hatred was no doubt religious in nature. Even when Hitler offered to let Jews leave during WWII, Western nations refused to take them in (which is the reason why many Jews today so passionately insist on Israel's right to exist as a Jewish state). Even after international sympathy had been generated from the deaths of six million Jews under Hitler's "Final Solution" -- Jews faced hostility and discrimination, for example finding some communities stonewalling the prosecution of Nazi criminals who had escaped to their localities after WW II. Anti-Semitism is of course alive and well. Even today Jewish children are sometimes charged with being "Christ killers" by their Christian playmates. Muslim Arabs are largely hostile towards Jews, because they view Israel as land that rightfully belongs to them. (The high birth rate among Muslim Arabs and the resulting scarcity of land, has made the situation even more tense.) Movement Towards "Improved" Relations Between Jews and Christians It was during the Enlightenment/Romanticism, that some Christian denominations first began to emphasis tolerance and love in their doctrines, as opposed to authority and obedience. This new doctrine of "love" also gradually carried over into improved relations between Jews and Christians. As we have seen, other of the Romantically-inspired movements during the late nineteenth century saw a return to religious hostility towards the Jews. It was not until the 1940's, following the world-wide revulsion to Nazism and the Death Camps, that the idea of a common Judeo-Christian tradition gained any real popular support. To distinguish the democratic ideal from right wing fascist sects (such as the Christian Aryan Syndicate), Protestants began to speak of their "shared" religious values that formed the basis of Western culture. (Kenneth Woolward, "Losing Our Moral Umbrella", NEWSWEEK, December 7, 1992, p 60 referencing author Mark Silk.) Political leaders found the idealized common bond of our Judaic-Christian heritage helpful in defining the position of the West vis-à-vis the threat of communism. President Dwight E. Eisenhower once remarked, for example that "Our government has no sense unless it is founded on a deeply religious faith, and I don't care what it is." (Ibid) American Protestant theologians responded with a theology that stressed a "love" approach between Christians and Jews--instead of hatred and fear. This also included an increased tolerance between different Christian sects. (Perceptions from a Jewish Point of View", UNCIVIL RELIGION: INTERRELIGIOUS HOSTILITY IN AMERICA, ed. by Robert N. Bellah and Frederick E. Greenspahn, Crossroad Publishing Co., 1987, p 9) Still, from the Jewish perspective, Christians who now purported to love them, still had the same motive--to convert them into Christianity. That is, Christians had kept the SAME goal, although they had changed their tactics.-- Instead of using force, Christians now openly embraced Jews with love and "concern" for their immortal souls. Indeed, it is no secret, that most Christians would prefer to see Jews convert en masse to Christianity. For example, in 1954 the World Council of Churches issued the following statement: "In view of the grievous guilt of Christian people towards the Jews throughout the history of the Church, we are certain that the Church cannot rest until the title of Christ to the Kingdom is recognized by His own people according to the flesh." (Robert N. Bellah and Frederick E. Greenspahn, editors UNCIVIL RELIGION, INTERRELIGIOUS HOSTILITY IN AMERICA. Crossroad Publishing Co., 1987, p 3). While Jews, no doubt, prefer Christians who purport to love them, better than those who actively hate and persecute them-- still, among many Jews, there is a feeling of wariness, that they are being perceived as a flawed and decadent religion. In looking for reasons "WHY" they have been persecuted for so long, some conservative Jews have responded that this demonstrates that Judaism is in reality "superior" to Christianity and that they are either being "tested" by God before He sends them the messiah, or else that they are being punished for not yet fully complying with His covenants. As for conservative Christian groups, many of them today have accepted the fact, that they do NOT have enough political power to return to the older days of religious pogroms against the Jews to force them to convert. Consequently "other" methods to help initiate the promised Second Coming have been searched for. One popular belief among many conservative Christian groups (using Revelations as their guide), is that the Jerusalem Temple must be REBUILT, before the Second Coming will be inaugurated. For this to happen, there must be a strong Jewish state in Israel. (Note, this is different from fundamentalist Jews, many of whom do NOT believe in the importance of a Jewish State to initiate the coming of the messiah.) Thus, ironically, many conservative Christians can be counted today among the most stalwart supporters of the state of Israel—i.e., because of their belief that this "stage" is necessary before the Second Coming will arrive upon the world scene.