SECTION V
Chapter 11  - The Emergence of Protestantism

Background before Luther's Protestant Revolution

  While the New World was being conquered by Spanish conquistadors in the
early 1500's, the popes in Rome (not to be outdone by secular patrons of the
arts) commissioned large building projects-- such as the spectacular remodeling
of St. Peter's church in the Vatican. Great Renaissance painters were employed
to make the Church of the Vatican truly the most splendid and impressive
center within Christendom.  Raphael was employed as the chief architect of
St. Peter's in 1514. Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci were among the eminent
artists hired to decorate its interior.

  Before gold and silver were discovered in the Spanish American colonies,
the Church had resorted to a number of financial schemes to pay for its
expensive construction projects, including the sale of indulgences. This led
to new charges of corruption within the Church by reformers. Overall,
corruption within the Church had become rampant--ranging from charges of
immorality and sexual misconduct among the clergy, to financial impropriety.
Unpopular papal taxes were more often used to finance petty wars by the pope,
than for lofty religious goals. Local parishes resented sending monies, so
that the papacy and its bureaucracy could live a fabulously wealthy lifestyle.

  Just prior to the Protestant Revolution, there was general calm on the heresy
scene. In the early years of the sixteenth century, the Catholic Church had
successfully put down most of the other schisms and heresies that had earlier
threatened the Church.

  Still, as corruption was perceived to be on the increase, some religious
reformers once again considered leaving the Catholic Church.

Sales of Indulgences

  Indulgences had been around centuries before the times of Martin Luther.
During the Crusades, the Church had offered indulgences (ie a "letter of
pardon") which would "forgive" the sins of anyone who possessed this letter.
(There was some controversy whether the pope himself possessed this right to 
forgive, or whether he would only intercede on the recipient's behalf before God 
in heaven)  By the 1500's, the Church had expanded the powers of indulgences to 
include, not only reducing a sin of the buyer, but to ransom a dead relative out 
of purgatory as well. True penitence by performing good deeds, was also deemed 
important--but good works were primarily viewed as contributions of money to the 
Church. (Fay-Cooper Cole, Harris Gaylor Warren, ed., AN ILLUSTRATED OUTLINE 
HISTORY OF MANKIND, 1959, p 323)

  As noted above, the Church began aggressively promoting sales of indulgences
in order to finance the Vatican building projects during the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries. The system had degenerated during this time, to where
wealthy middlemen were employed to market them to the population.

  Unknown to the public, the pope had agreed to sell all the indulgences in
Saxony to the Archbishop of Mainz--who had borrowed heavily to put up the
money for them.  Half of the collected money was to go to Rome to help
renovate St. Peter's, while the other half would go towards paying off the
debt of the Archbishop.  Although Luther did not know the politics going on
within the Church, he and others were disgusted by the unscrupulous salesman
tactics used in selling indulgences--the promise of fantastic claims and cures
in exchange for purchasing expensive pieces of worthless paper.

   One of the most successful salesman of indulgences was John Tetzel
(1465-1519) who was also a German Dominican friar.  A master orator, Tetzel's
speeches to (such as the one below) appealed to his audience to buy indulgences
to save their souls:

  "Know that the life of man upon earth is a constant struggle. We have to
  fight against the flesh, the world and the devil, who are always seeking to
  destroy the soul.  In sin we are conceived,--alas! what bonds of sin
  encompass us, and how difficult and  almost impossible it is to attain to
  the gate of salvation without divine aid; since He causes us to be saved,
  not by virtue of the good works which we accomplish, but through His divine
  mercy; it is necessary then to put on the armour of God."

  "You may obtain letters of safe conduct from the vicar of our Lord Jesus
  Christ, by means of which you are able to liberate your soul from the hands
  of the enemy, and convey it by means of contrition and confession, safe and
  secure from all pains of Purgatory, into the happy kingdom. For we know
  that in these letters [ie indulgences] are stamped and engraven all the
  merits of Christ's passion there laid bare.  Consider, that for each and
  every mortal sin it is necessary to undergo seven years of penitence after
  confession and contrition, either in this life or in Purgatory."

  "How many mortal sins are committed in a day, how many in a week, how
  many in a month, how many in a year, how many in the course of life!  They
  are well-nigh numberless, and those that commit them must needs suffer
  endless punishment in the burning pains of Purgatory."

  "But with these confessional letters you will be able at any time in
  life to obtain full indulgence for all penalties imposed upon you, in all
  cases except the four reserved to the Apostolic See."
(J.H. Robinson, ed TRANSLATIONS AND REPRINTS, Vol. 2, No. 6 as quoted by
Eugene Weber, THE WESTERN TRADITION, D.C. Heath and Co., 1990, PP 332-3)

   Religious reformers felt that these tactics were victimizing poor peasants--
and too often, it was the elderly and sickly who made the greatest financial
sacrifices so that they could buy indulgences.

Martin Luther (1483-1546), Protestant Father

   According to legend, Martin Luther made the decision to become a monk after 
fearing for his life while attending a German university during a fierce 
lightening storm. Help, St. Anna," cried Luther as lightening struck nearby, 
"and I will become a monk!"  Luther kept his promise, first studying at the 
Erfurt Monastery in Germany, and then leaving to lecture on the Ethics of 
Aristotle at the University of Wittenberg. Luther's university years had exposed 
him to the new Renaissance inquiry into the order of nature—along with the 
underlying implication that the Catholic clergy might not really have a monopoly 
on Christian knowledge and truth.

  During his early years, Martin Luther was personally tormented with the idea
that no matter how hard he tried, he was only a "miserable little pygmy"--
"dust and ashes and full of sin"--who could only tremble before the wrath of
God on Judgment Day.  To absolve himself of his sins, Luther in accordance
with the Catholic beliefs of his day, believed that it was necessary to
confess ALL of his sins--one by one.

   So obsessed was Luther with this thought, that at one time, he proceeded
to confess long lists of his sins for six consecutive hours to a confessor.
He then kept coming back, because ever time he left, he panicked that he
had FORGOTTEN ONE MORE minor, trivial sin.  It was said that the Catholic
confessor had grown so impatient with Luther, that he finally told him in
exasperation, to go out and do something "worthy" of being confessed--such
as killing his father or mother!

   Luther's paranoia did not arise out of concern over whether he had committed
a large or small sin--but whether he had confessed ALL of his sins. He panicked
especially at the thought-- that he might be SO immoral, that he might not have
even RECOGNIZED ALL of his sins!

  Luther's confessor told him he was making the path to salvation too hard upon
himself. Indeed, deep down, Luther paranoid fear of having his sins judged
before the almighty God, was causing him to fear, and therefore HATE God--
as opposed to loving Him.

    Then one day, while rereading the first chapter of Paul's Epistle to the
Romans, Luther came across the following passage, which would change his life:

  "he shall gain life who is justified through faith."

   After reading and rereading this verse, Luther had a revelation that what
Paul had meant by these lines was that grace came from man's own faith--and
NOT from the Church's sanctioned acts of repentance, intercession of saints
and martyrs, Church prayers and indulgences. This revelation relieved Luther
of all his past mental turmoil.  He now viewed the passion of Christ on the
cross, to mean that Jesus had taken upon himself all the sins of mankind, thus
demonstrating the amazing love of the divine Father. Man's salvation lay in
having faith in God and Christ. This doctrine--known as justification of
faith--would later became the cornerstone of his new protestant sect--
Lutherism.

  Luther believed that this new understanding of God's grace meant that
IT COULD NEVER BE BOUGHT WITH MERE MONEY! In 1517, Luther nailed a list of
95 theses, or protesting objections to the church at the Wittenberg University.
One item, #27 stated that "It is mere human talk to preach that the soul
flies [out of purgatory] as the money clicks in the collection box." And
#86, "what does not the Pope, whose riches are at this day greater than
those of the wealthiest of the wealthy, build the single Basilica of
St. Peter with his own money rather than with that of poor believers?"
According to Luther, "Papal pardons cannot take away the least of venial
sins."

   Luther's list of 95 protesting objections became so popular, that they
were quickly reprinted and sent to a number of cities.  A violent reaction
set in against the sale of pardons.  Tetzel was met by an angry mob and
driven out of Germany.

  The Protestant revolution was on. As one contemporary writer would later
remark: "Luther has attacked both the Pope's authority and the monk's dinner."

Other religious reformers compared to Luther--Erasmus

  Luther was, of course, not the first religious reformer to question whether
man should have an intermediary (ie the Catholic clergy) between himself
and God. The Dutch scholar, Erasmas had shared this view, along with Luther's
goal of translating the Bible into the common language of the people--so they
could read it for themselves. In his PRAISE OF FOLLY, Erasmus ridiculed the
disputes of theologians over the doctrines of the Incarnation, the Trinity,
and transubstantiation. Erasmus (similar to the Protestant reformers) lashed
out against the elaborate system of pardons, indulgences, and purgatory days
calculated by the priests.

  Still, Erasmus wished to reform the Catholic Church from WITHIN, as opposed
to overthrowing it. Erasmus asked for toleration and peace. He hated the
witch-hunting atmosphere engendered by the Inquisition, and the "heresies"
arising from ANY deviation from Church dogma. He had never forgotten his
horror, when at the age of eight, he had personally witnessed 200 prisoners
of war, who were cruelly broken on a wheel outside of Utrecht, Holland--
upon orders of the bishop.
  
  Luther, on the other hand, was absolutely convinced that the Catholic
Church could never be merely "reformed".  Luther believed that one could look
to the SCRIPTURES to point man in the direction of truth. (Had not this been
how he had discovered that man was saved by FAITH--and NOT by GOOD WORKS?)
Luther called on the German princes, in their role as civil authorities
within Christendom, to use their military might to enforce the reforms in
their territories:

  "If the raging madness were to continue, it seems to be no better counsel
  and remedy could be found against it than that king and princes apply
  force, arm themselves, attack these evil people [Catholics] who have
  poisoned the entire world, and put an end to this game once and for all,
  with arms, not with words... Why do we not turn on all those evil teachers
  of perdition, those popes, cardinals and bishops, and the entire swarm of
  Roman Sodom with arms in hand, and wash our hands in their blood."

  As happened with other earlier religious movements, Luther's writings became
entangled with general economic and social discontent--and threatened to
flare up into a large peasant revolt. Luther was determined not to let the
peasants destroy his religious movement! Angered by the violence shown in
these riots, Luther, In his AGAINST THE MURDERING, THIEVING HORDES OF PEASANTS,
urged his German prince allies to quash the peasant rebellion: "They should be
knocked to pieces, strangled and stabbed, secretly and openly, by everyone
who can do it, just as one must kill a mad dog".  (Luther's feelings were
shared by the German nobles, who cruelly put down the revolt.--It's been
estimated that some fifty thousand people, mostly peasants were killed in
suppressing the revolt).

  By his ruthless denunciation of the peasant revolt, Luther had beaten the
revolutionary label that had led to the defeat of earlier religious reformers.
Luther, who strongly admired the writings of St. Augustine, emphasized his
beliefs in the use of authoritarian force and in predestination. Now, with
the full backing of the secular princes in Germany, Luther's reformation was
firmly entrenched--and the Vatican had to choose between compromise and
reconciliation--or all out war!

Response of the Papacy to Luther's Reforms

  The papacy in Rome was too busy with political intrigues and alliances
to take immediate notice of Luther.  The great Turkish sultan Suleiman
the Magnificent had invaded Hungary in 1521, and the Holy Roman emperor
Charles V was at war with Francis I of France as well.   It took almost
four years before the Vatican even got around to excommunicating Luther.

  When in 1529, Charles V called for the re-imposition of papal authority,
a group of German princes prepared an indignant declaration, a "protest",
against this declaration.  It is from this event that the word "Protestant"
had its origins. There were a series of battles between Catholic and Lutheran
princes, with neither side securing a decisive win.  Both sides compromised.
The treaty of Augsburg in 1930 marked the formal recognition of the Protestant
faith in Germany.

  Instead of a pope, Lutherans spoke of the Bible as being the source of
authority for their doctrines. In addition to denying papal authority,
Lutheran rejected worship of the saints, the Virgin Mary, or relics. Other
Catholic practices and beliefs such as purgatory, indulgences, and pilgrimages
were also rejected. Services were conducted in German instead of Latin, and
priests were allowed to marry.  Luther's doctrine of allowing marriage became
popular among the clergy, as sexual liaisons had always been a problem for
many clergymen. In 1525 Luther married a former nun, Katherine von Bora.

  When the Council of Trent met in 1545, all hopes for a peaceful resolution
between Catholics and Protestants had been dashed.  The Catholic Church
effected only a minimum number of changes-- refusing for example to waive
its monopoly on interpreting scripture, and reaffirming its doctrine of
transubstantiation, celibacy among the clergy, belief in purgatory, and
the accumulation of merits through indulgences. At the conclusion of the
council meeting, the decision was made to compile a list of heretical
writings, so as to prevent the Protestant heresy (among others) from
corrupting the remaining Catholic faithful.  A Commission was appointed to
draw up a list of forbidden writings--known as the Index of Prohibited Books.
Later an agency known as the Congregation of the Index was set up to revise
the Index over periods of time.

  But although the Catholic Church was now ready to wage all out war to stamp
out the new protestants, it was too late.  For the new protestantism had
already taken firm root within Europe. The recent invention of Guttenberg's
uniform moveable type for the printing press served to transport Luther's
"protest" throughout Germany, France, the Lowlands, and eventually England.
Luther translated the Bible into German, so that the people could read it in
their own native tongue--as opposed to learning scholarly Latin. Also, the
mass production of books from the printing presses dropped the price of the
Bible for the first time to within the range whereby an ordinary person could
buy it.

  The power of the printing press to mass market heretical Protestant ideas
was not lost on the Catholic kings and princes. They reacted by passing
extremely harsh laws against the printing houses themselves. Printing shops
were regulated so as they could operated only under strict license, and even
at that were strictly liable for the contents of their published books.  Anyone 
caught breaking these laws was declared a heretic, and suffered the consequences 
thereof--men were burned, women were buried alive.

  Despite these harsh measures, the Church could not control all the printing
presses--especially those in Protestant controlled towns and cities.
Emotionalism ran high for or against the new form of religion. This, mixed
with new yearnings of nationalism, turned all of European society into an
upheaval in the contest between heretical Protestants, and Catholics trying
to regain authority and control.

  Luther's writings spread like wildfire among a large base that had been
seething with discontent. At first Luther preached toleration for other
religious views--He said he did not want to "triumph by fire but by
writings."  After the masses took up protestantism under a revolutionary
banner, Luther switched views, claiming that authoritarian measures were
necessary to control the populace. By 1531, he believed that other
Protestant sects that had emerged such as the anabaptists, "should be
done to death by the civil authority." Now rabidly anti-Catholic, Martin
Luther declared that the pope was the antiChrist, and called upon the people
to rise up against the evil empire of Catholicism:

   "If the raging madness were to continue, it seems to be no better
   counsel and remedy could be found against it than that king and
   princes apply force, arm themselves, attack these evil people who
   have poisoned the entire world, and put an end to this game once and
   for all, with arms, not with words . . . Why do we not turn on all those
   evil teachers of perdition, those popes, cardinals and bishops, and
   the entire swarm of the Roman Sodom with arms in hand, and wash our hands
   in their blood."

Anabaptists

  The first Anabaptist leaders, Conrad Grebel and Feliz Manz of Zurich
Switzerland had, like Luther, searched the Scriptures in order to discover
the "true" beliefs of the early Church.  Generally Anabaptists disagreed
with Catholicism on the following points:

  * Anabaptists refused to acknowledge the doctrine of baptizing infants
(hence the name meaning anti-baptists).  The only REAL baptism was adult
baptism, performed VOLUNTARILY, as an outward sign of belief.

  *Anabaptists supported the peasants for the abolition of mandatory tithes
to the Church--arguing instead that tithes should be voluntarily made by
believers.

 * Anabaptist denied the authority of the Catholic priesthood, declaring
  instead that each individual should follow his own "inner light".

   Many Anabaptist leaders denounced the accumulation of wealth, and taught
that all good Christians should SHARE their possessions.  In addition, they
refused to recognized one's social rank--declaring that all people were
equal in the sight of God.  The Anabaptist movement became extremely
popular among the peasants--much to the horror of the noblemen who feared
a revolution that would overthrow the socio-economic order.

  As a result, Anabaptists were hated by Catholics, Lutherans and Calvinists
alike.  At first, the authorities tried to banish the Anabaptists.  But this
did not prevent the movement from growing among the peasants.  Consequently,
imprisonments and persecutions followed. Grebel eventually died in a plague.
The other Anabaptist leader, Felix Manz was drowned in Zurich by authorities
on the ground that his beliefs were subversive to the state. (Drowning was a
favored way of killing Anabaptists, to mock their refusal in baptizing infants.)
During the period of persecution that followed, Anabaptists were sustained by
their belief that the Second Coming of Jesus was imminent. Martyrdom was
idealized as walking in the path of Jesus himself.

  In the face of the persecutions, Anabaptists retreated--eventually expanding
into three new sects.  From the Swiss Anabaptists emerged the Amish--some of
whom immigrated to America to settle in Pennsylvania and the Midwest.  From
the Dutch Anabaptists emerged the Mennonites and Baptists.  A third branch of
the Anabaptists, known as the Hutterites, became established in the areas of
Moravia and Transylvania. (A variant form of Anabaptism existed for a short
time in the Westphalian city of Munster.  Their leader John of Leiden believed
himself to be a successor of King David, and sanctioned the Old Testament
custom of polygamy. Catholics occupied the city within two years, and John
was beheaded.)

John Calvin (1509-1564)

  After Martin Luther, undoubtedly the next most influential figure in the
movement of the Protestant Reformation was John Calvin. Born as a Frenchman,
John Calvin determined in his early twenties that Christianity must be
reformed.  He therefore broke with his Catholic upbringing.  Fearing
persecution, he fled to Geneva Switzerland, where he became the head of another
protestant movement (this one begun by Ulrich Zwingli, who was killed in a
battle with the Catholics).

   As had Martin Luther, John Calvin excitedly studied the implications of St.
Augustine's views on predestination.  However, instead of emphasizing the
concept towards salvation as Luther had done, Calvin stressed the application
of predestination towards the DAMNATION OF THE HUMAN RACE! To Calvin, it was
part of God's eternal Plan that some people were PREDESTINED to be saved
by grace, while the VAST MAJORITY were predestined to be condemned to
damnation. Of course, all men were evil and deserving of damnation, but
God in his mercy allowed the Elect to attain eternal life. Per Calvin,

  "If we ask why God takes pity on some, and why he lets go of the others,
  there is no other answer but that it pleases him to do so."

  This extreme view of God's absolute sovereignty explains Calvin's
antagonistic views towards humanism. Since man, by nature, is corrupt and
wicked (according to Augustine's doctrine of original sin), he must
unquestionably obey God's commandments as laid down in the Bible (and
interpreted by Calvin). According to Calvin, man's salvation was founded
upon three tests: Profession of the true Calvinist faith, a moral, upright
life, and participation in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. (Calvin differed 
with Luther on the meaning of the Lord's Supper:  Luther agreed with Catholics 
that Jesus' presence was to be found in the elements of the Communion, whereas 
Calvin insisted that the observance was to be interpreted as a symbolic act of 
remembrance). 

 Calvin's Church was NOT controlled by the minister, but by elected elders.
Calvin's followers became known as "Presbyterians", which comes from the
Greek word "elder", because they were ruled by elders.

  Like Augustine, Calvin believed in a strong authoritarian police government
to keep the "Elect" from temptation, and to excommunicate and banish those who 
were already "predestined" to be damned. To Calvin, even one's faith  (and 
therefore salvation) resulted from a "gift" from God. Calvin considered secular 
entertainment--such as plays, dancing, music, and art-- to be the works of the 
Devil, and they were banned.  Innkeepers were ordered not to allow anyone 
to eat or drink on their premises without first saying grace. Nor were they to 
allow any of their guests to stay up past nine o'clock at night unless they were 
spying on the conduct of others.

  Pagan holidays such as Christmas and Easter were banned.  Even Church
services were to be plain and simple--no instrumental music, stained glass
windows or other decorations or pictures were allowed.  The Sabbath was
strictly interpreted to mean that members should attend Church, and
afterwards refrain from all pleasures or work for the remainder of the day.

  Cities where Calvin's new protestant religion took hold, appointed
police-like disciplinary officers, who worked closely with pastors to
enforce the new moral code on every member of the community. Households
were visited once a year, to locate anyone who broke the rules.  It was
an effort, (albeit on a smaller scale that Charlemagne's efforts) to effect
Augustine's vision of a city of God on the earth.  Penalties were harsh.
Not only were murder and treason capital crimes, but the same was true
for adultery, blasphemy, heresy, and accused witchcraft.

The Martyrdom of Michael Servetus

  Michael Servetus, a Spanish physician (known today as the discoverer of
pulmonary circulation of blood) had met the young John Calvin in Geneva--just
after Calvin had fled from persecution in France. Years later, after
Calvinism had taken hold in Geneva, Switzerland, Servetus considered John
Calvin to be a potential ally.

  Falsely claiming that he was still a Catholic, Servetus wrote a work
called "Christianismi Restitutio".  In it, he stressed essentially what
became the deistic views taken up later during the Enlightenment. That is,
he questioned the doctrines of the Trinity and infant baptism. He also placed 
reason above revelation, humanity and brotherhood over the authority of priests.

  Servetus naively sent Calvin a copy of his writings. Calvin became
enraged, claiming that Servetus was a heretic who was attempting to
undermine the very foundation of Christianity and morality. In 1546,
Calvin wrote to a friend,


  "Servetus has just sent me... a long volume of his ravings. If I consent,
   he will come here [to Geneva], but I will not give my word; for should
   he come, if my authority is of any avail, I will not suffer him to get
   out alive."

   Servetus came under disguise, but was recognized and arrested. He was
convicted of rejecting the doctrines of predestination and the Trinity,
and for teaching that Palestine was a barren land (contrary to the Old
Testament description of a land of "Milk and Honey"). Calvin pushed for the
death penalty for his religious views. (Some admirers of Calvin insisted
that Calvin tried to lessen Servetus' death sentence--by condemning merely
to be beheaded--instead of being burned at the stake). However, this "kinder"
death penalty was not implemented, and Servetus was condemned to be burned
at the stake by fire, on October 27, 1553.  He was burned at the stake over 
greenwood, to slow down the process so that it took three hours for him to die.
Servetus met his death with steadfastness and prayer, calling upon the Son of 
the eternal God to grant him mercy. 

  Calvin's cruelty touched off a furor by liberal and more moderate
theologians, as Servetus' "crime" was purely religious in nature and had
no political or revolutionary overtones. Calvin later complained,

  "The dogs are yelping at me from every quarter... Every slander that
   can be invented is being heaped upon me."

  Servetus' death at the hands of Calvin was not forgotten over the next
centuries by religious reformers--and his memory was championed by such
writers of the Enlightenment as Voltaire and Thomas Jefferson.  (Today's liberal 
religious sect-- Unitarian Universalists-- also view Servetus as one of their 
founding fathers.)

Success of Calvinism

    Despite the criticism of Servetus' death by some liberal Christian
reformers, Calvinism became popular--spreading into France, the Netherlands,
England, Scotland, New England, Poland, and Hungary. (In Scotland, John Knox,
who was greatly influenced by Calvin, founded the new Christian sect of
Presbyterianism). Because Calvinists were typically minorities OUTSIDE of
Switzerland, the Genevan authoritarian styled government was never reproduced
in these areas. Even in Scotland, where Calvinism become dominant, the
Calvinists there did not seek to demand absolute control over their populace.

  As minorities, Calvinists also suffered terrible persecutions at the hands
of Catholics, such as the 1572 massacre that took place on St. Bartholomew's
Day, in France--discussed later. (Modern Presbyterianism has dramatically
softened the original teachings of Calvin--for example de-emphasizing
"predestination" and the damnation of the human race, and allowing music
and decorations within their churches.)

  Many historians have credited Calvinism (along with other Protestant sects)
with promoting the spirit of capitalism-- because it encouraged thrift and
hard work among its adherents for "the glory of God". Even more important,
Calvin allowed businesses to charge interest (by carefully distinguishing
between justifiable interest, and illegal or usurious interest). Commerce and
trade thrived under a system that was believed to be ordained by God as a
legitimate channeling of the believers' energies.  Profits were not to be
for personal gain or enjoyment--but for growing the business even more, or
for philanthropic purposes. The thrift and industry of hard-working Protestant
sects such as the Calvinists, eventually made them a prosperous middle class.

 Reformation in England

  John Wycliff (c. 1329-1384) was an earlier English reformer who both
criticized the Catholic papacy for its wealth and indulgences, and translated
the Bible into English so that the people could read it for themselves. His
followers--called Lollards--embraced a lifestyle of poverty in spreading his
teachings throughout the English countryside. He had the support of the
English ruling classes-- until 1381, when he backed a popular peasant uprising.
After that time, the Lollards lost their aristocratic support, and were
actively persecuted. Their English translation of the Bible burned.

  One problem for early religious reformers, was that their theology
tended to get caught up in the poor social plight of the peasants-
leading to social unrest and revolts.

  William Tyndale (c 1494-1536)  published a new English translation of the
Bible. However, like Wycliff's translation, Tyndale's Bible was considered a
revolutionary act.(Indeed he chose some terms and footnotes in such a way as
to clearly question the divine right of kings!) While Luther, was careful
not to offend the German princes and relied on their protection throughout
his life, Tyndale had no powerful allies in the English community.  He was
eventually captured and burned at the stake as a heretic. His English
translation of the Bible was so thoroughly hunted down, that only one
partial copy is known to have survived the burnings.

    Many European leaders were very reluctant at first to take up the new
protestant religion--because it was perceived as a potential revolutionary
threat to the old divine order of kings!  Earlier kings had derived their
authority from the spiritual sanction of the Pope in Rome.--It would take
time before a new understanding of the relationship of the king to God
could be formulated, to where people would still obey the social order.

Development of Protestantism in England

  Under King Henry VIII, in early Tudor England, most intellectuals held
traditional Catholic attitudes on controlling access to the readings of the
Scriptures.  They believed that unless the reading of the Bible was limited
to a small group--then the populace would run riot with false interpretations--
possibly even leading to dangerous inquiries into such politically sensitive
areas as the divine rights of kings!

    Henry VIII broke with the Catholic Church not for political reasons--but
for a social one.  He was determined to divorce his first queen--Catherine
of Aragon--in the hopes of producing a male heir to the throne through another
queen.  Sir Thomas More refused to sanction Henry's supreme right in obtaining
his own divorce and paid for his views with his life.

  After breaking with Catholicism over the issue of divorce, Henry still did
not openly embrace  Lutheranism or Calvinism-- but sought instead to form
his own church--the Anglican church of England.  It was Anne Boleyn, Henry's
second wife, who largely persuaded the King to publish an official English
version of the Bible.  This version, known as the Great Bible, was translated
and edited by old friends and acquaintances of Tyndale.  A large portion of
Tyndale's beautifully translated prose (minus the offending passages) was
thus salvaged and formed the basis of much of the Bible.

  After Henry VIII's death, his Catholic daughter, "Bloody" Mary, ascended to
the throne in 1553.  Determined to return England back into the fold of
Catholicism, Queen Mary sent Archbishop Cranmer of the Church of England--
along with some 200-300 Protestant reformers to the stake to be burned.   The
terror instituted by Mary during her reign was based on old English statues
outlawing the Lollard heresy.  The first man to be burned at the stake was
John Rogers-- his crime was translating the Bible into English.

  After Mary's early death, and now with Protestant Queen Elizabeth I on
the throne, the country swung back the other way. Many Catholics were now
forced to flee the country for THEIR lives. Whereas the legitimacy of Mary's
rule depended on repudiating the divorce decree of her father Henry VIII--
Elizabeth's rule depended on sanctioning it.

  The Spanish Armada dispatched to England from Spain was largely an attempt
to bring England back in line with Catholicism.  Queen Elizabeth's efforts
to establish a moderate Anglican Church was resisted by Puritan and Catholic
groups alike. When the Catholic Mary Queen of Scotts challenged Elizabeth's
throne, the country was thrown into a civil war. After their defeat, Catholics
became a minority in England. Calvinist Puritans, on the other hand, grew in
strength and numbers.

  After Queen Elizabeth's death, her successor, King James I was faced with
a strong Puritan base in England. James chose not to directly confront the
Puritan challenge, because he knew they had grown powerful enough to topple
his throne. As a compromise in one session, he agreed to a new translation
of the Bible--in order to counter the complaint that the Great Bible of King
Henry VIII contained known errors. The result lead to the King James' Bible,
finished in 1611--which is even today revered as one of the most beloved and
enduring translations of the Bible.

  Ironically, much of Tyndale's early prose found its way into the King James'
version! (It has been estimated that as much as 90% of the Bible was taken
directly from Tyndale's Bible). King James forbade marginal notes other than
strict translations of Greek and Hebrew words, "having found in them ... notes
partial, untrue, seditions, and savoring too much of dangerous and traitorous
conceits.  As, for example, Exodus, 1:19 where the marginal noted alloweth
for DISOBEDIENCE TO KINGS."  Thus same of the major differences between the
King James Bible and the old Bible of Tyndale's was in its respect shown for
the office of the king--including the inclusion of grander prose that describes
those sections dealing with the king's court and the presence of God. (John
Romer, TESTAMENT, p 324)

  Despite the success and popularity of the Bible of King James I, many
of his Protestant subjects greatly distrusted his Catholic leanings. When
James' son, Charles I insisted on a return to the divine right of kings,
and threatened to dismantle the Church of England as the official church,
his Puritan subjects revolted under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell.
Charles was later sent to the scaffold to be beheaded.

   It was said that even on the scaffold, Charles refused to disavow the
divine right of kings.  At one point he shouted out to the crowds that "a
subject and a sovereign are clean different things".  After his execution,
his blood was dipped into handkerchiefs, and sold to the public--whereupon
many claimed that it still retained its miraculous powers (ie from the
king's touch) in healing the sick. (For a discussion of the King's Touch
see Section VII, Chapter 4).

 England remained Puritan until Oliver Cromwell's death. After this time,
Charles' son was asked to return to England to re-establish the monarchy
and become King of England. Unlike his father, Charles showed political
savvy in never asserting-- what had now become an unpopular doctrine.  That
is, he avoided the topic of the divine right of kings--for which his father
had paid dearly--with his life.

Response of the Catholic Church to Protestantism--The Counter Reformation

  By the middle of the sixteenth century, three strong sects within
Christianity-- Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism-- had emerged as
powerful forces within Europe. Each declared its version of Christianity
to be the one and only true religion, and sought to impose its own doctrines
and institutions throughout Europe.

  Political leaders, as a rule chose whether their subjects would be
Catholics or Protestants. In Spain, the Catholic rulers, turned the
institution of the Inquisition (which had earlier persecuted Jews and Moslem
Moors) now against Protestants. Protestants were driven out of Spain
by the 1550's. Likewise, in Italy, Catholicism remained a strong force,
as the Vatican itself operated out of Rome.

The Counter-Reformation refers to that period of time when the Catholic
Church, recognized the major threat of the growing force of Protestantism--
and determined to revitalize its efforts to stamp out the Protestant heresy
once and for all!  The Council of Trent can be seen as the kickoff to the
Counter Reformation movement.

   Much of the Counter Reformation was financed by gold and silver, which
was now flowing into the Spanish treasury from the Spanish American colonies.
However, despite their wealth, Catholic military power was not strong enough
to completely beat back the Protestants. Still, it WAS successful in holding
the new Protestant heresy in check--away from those areas in Europe controlled
by Italy and Spain.  As the Catholic Church toughened its position, it called
on the full powers of the Inquisition to stamp out all heresy. The Roman
Inquisition was formed in 1542, and shortly afterwards the "Index" of forbidden
books was established. The formation of new religious orders, such as the
Jesuits would be instrumental in bringing much of Europe back into the fold
of Catholicism-- and halting the spread of Protestantism.

The Formation of the Jesuits Order

  Various new religious orders within Catholicism had been founded in the
midst of the religious struggles of the sixteenth century.  The most
successful of these-- the Jesuits (formally the Society of Jesus), was
founded by Ignatius Layola in the 1530's. The Jesuits were organized based
on a model of the military.  Dedicated towards the goal of extirpating
Protestant and other heresies, Jesuits vowed absolute obedience to the
Pope!  Layola's SPIRITUAL EXERCISES, has as the very FIRST rule to:

  "Always to be ready to obey with mind and heart, setting aside all judgment
  of one's own, the true spouse of Jesus Christ, our holy mother, our
  infallible and orthodox mistress, the Catholic Church, whose authority is
  exercised over us by the hierarchy."

The thirteenth rule further expanded further on this,

  "That we may be altogether of the same mind and in conformity with the Church
  herself, if she shall have defined anything to be BLACK which to our eyes
  appears WHITE, we ought in like manner to pronounce it BLACK." (emphasis
  mine, taken from DOCUMENTS OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH, ed. Henry Bettenson
  (London, 1950), Oxford University Press)

  According to Alfonso Rodriguez, the Jesuits found personal comfort in
their beliefs (Just as the Calvinist found comfort in being one of the "Elect")
because of,

  "the assurance we have that in obeying we can commit no fault... you
  are certain you commit no fault as long as you obey, because God will
  only ask you if you have duly performed what orders you have received,
  and if you can give a clear account in that respect, you are absolved
  entirely...God wipes it out of your account and charges it to the superior."

  This insistence on authority did NOT prevent the Jesuits from recruiting
highly educated men of exceptional learning and abilities, who were strongly
motivated to make Catholicism once again the universal Christian faith.

  Indeed, it was through the Jesuits that the Catholics became highly
successful in turning the tide against Protestantism in Europe. It was the
Jesuits who played a large role in carrying Catholicism into the Americas,
Africa, and even Asia (China and Japan), and succeeded in winning back many
Catholics in Europe. The Jesuits used every device possible to re-establish
the authority of the pope--ranging from enlisting the aid of the arts,
literature, and sciences--in addition to outright political assassinations
and intrigues.  War was strongly praised as the proper response to the
Protestant heresy.

  Thus for example in 1599, Juan Mariani offered Philip III the following
advice on stamping out Protestant heresy--(note the reference to
St. Augustine's writings on heretics):

  "It is a glorious thing to exterminate the whole of this pestilential
   and pernicious race from the community of mankind.  Limbs, too, are cut
   off when they are corrupt, that they may not infect the remainder of the
   body; and likewise this bestial cruelty in human shape must be separated
   from the state and cut off with the sword." (Paul Johnson, p 305)

  The Jesuits organized subversive activity in England under Queen Elizabeth
along with Ireland and Scotland. They were also instrumental in initiating
the terrible Thirty Years War (1618-1648) which killed some thirty percent of
the German population and destroyed much of the countryside for the next
century. (Economics and politics were also factors in this terrible war).
After it was over, Bavaria, Austria, and Poland were now back in the fold of
Catholicism.

  The Jesuits were largely viewed as a great success.  Indeed, centuries
later, the German Nazi head of the SS, Heinrich Himmler, would MODEL the
secret organization of the SS--based on the strict authority and discipline
of the Jesuits. Applicants to the SS had to undergo a period of prolonged
period of testing and exercises to prove them "worthy".  Absolute obedience
was required--this time to the Nazi State--as opposed to the Catholic
hierarchy. (Because of this, Himmler was nicknamed the "Black Jesuit".)

  Throughout the mid sixteenth to mid seventeenth century, religious wars
raged throughout Europe between Catholics and Protestants.  According to
Paul Johnson, in his book A HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY, these religious wars:

  "were destructive of Christian faith itself, as well as human life and
  material civilization.  They came, too, after a period when mankind had
  rediscovered the riches of the ancient world and was advancing rapidly
  in knowledge and techniques.  The effect of religious conflict was not to
  halt this process completely but to retard and deform it. Reason was
  devalued.  Dark and horrible forces were unleashed or resuscitated. The
  hopeful dawn [the religious reformer] Erasmus noted broadened into a
  tempestuous day where sensible and civilized men had to shout to make
  their voices heard above the winds of violence, cruelty and superstition."
  (Paul Johnson, p 305-6)

Catholics vs Protestants in Holland

  Holland endured sixty years of terrible repression and wars (1523-81),
as Catholic Spain sought (unsuccessfully) to stamp out the strong base
of Calvinist Protestant heresy that had developed there. The revulsion of
the Dutch people against the atrocities committed against them, made them
even more determined to defy Catholic Spain--and to, instead, allow religious
toleration for all people. In 1581, under the leadership of William of Orange,
the Dutch Netherlands renounced allegiance to the King of Spain, and declared
themselves an independent republic.  A policy of religious toleration was
declared, which led to a large influx of persecuted Protestant and Jewish
refugees into Holland from the rest of Europe.

  During the next (seventeenth) century, Holland became a thriving and
prosperous center for trade and industry.  Its cities became among the
most important trade and intellectual centers of Europe. Often called the
golden age of the Dutch Netherlands, it was during this period that Holland
produced some of its greatest painters, philosophers, and theologians.
Large trading companies established colonies as far away as Africa, India,
and the East Indies.  Amsterdam became the financial center of the world,
and her universities and scholars were among the finest in Europe. Over time,
both Dutch Catholics and Protestants came to generally accept the principle
of religious toleration--as they realized that their prosperity and
intellectual climate was a direct result of their religious freedoms.

Religious Wars in France

  Although Holland had became a small enclave of toleration, the rest of
western Europe was still engaged in ferocious religious wars between Catholics
and Protestants. Nowhere was the fighting more bitter than in France.
Although most of the aristocracy was firmly Catholic, powerful nobles such
as the Bourbons, had converted to Calvinism. The Calvinists became known as
Huguenots in France and formed a strong religious minority in the country.

  After Catherine de' Medici, a committed Catholic, became regent of France,
she and her advisors determined to annihilate the Huguenots living in the
country.  On August 14, 1572, a series of massacres began. The first
massacre became known as the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre killed an
estimated 10,000 people. Many Catholics were delighted that the protestant
"heretics" had been so disposed of. It was said that the news of the massacre
made Catholic Philip II of Spain laugh for the first, and last time in his
life.  The Pope in Rome showed his gratitude to God for the success, by
ordering a TE DEUM in which he declared that the deaths of the Huegenots
pleased him more than fifty victories of Lepanto (against the Turks).
(Eugen Weber, THE WESTERN TRADITION, D.C. Heath and Company, 1990, p 356)

   Despite their success, the moderate Henri of Navarre, who was sympathetic
to the Protestants, later ascended to the French throne. After three
religious wars between the French Catholics and Huguenots, a settlement
known as the Edict of Tolerations was signed in Nantes in 1598, which
granted the Huguenots toleration and a certain degree of self-government.
Still, they faced heavy persecutions under the Catholic majority in France.

Increase in Heresy

   As we have seen, Catholics considered Protestants vile heretics.--
Protestants returned the compliment!  The full extent of the barbarism of
this period, however, cannot be comprehended, without recounting at least
a few examples of the atrocities committed on both sides:

  *Ann Askew (1517-46), an English Bible student, came to disbelieve in the
doctrine of transubstantiation (as required in the English Act of the
Six Articles set forth under the reign of Henry VIII).  She was tried
and convicted in 1546, where she was put in the rack and stretched.  After
kept in prison for four weeks, she was taken and burned at the stake.
(Frank Swancara, THOMAS JEFFERSON VERSUS RELIGIOUS OPPRESSION, (University
Books, 1969, p 49)

  *In Italy, Lucilio Vanini (1585-1619) was convicted of "atheism".  During
his execution, a Christian chronicler noted with apparent glee: "Before putting
fire to the stake, Vanini was ordered to put forth his sacrilegious tongue
for the knife...It was necessary to employ pincers to draw it forth, and
when the executioner's instrument...cut if off never was heard a more
horrible cry.  One might have thought he heard the bellowing of an ox which
was being slaughtered." (Ibid, p 48 quoting Jack Owen, SKEPTICS OF THE
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE (1893)

  *During the Thirty Years War, Catholic Jesuits issued the sentences such
as the following.--"The doctor Jessenius, rector of the Academy of Prague,
while living shall have his tongue cut out, his body divided into quarters,
his limbs hung at the cross roads; his head and his tongue shall be thrown
into a sewer." (Ibid, p49, quoting Robert H. Vickers, HISTORY OF BOHEMIA
(1894) 605-6)

Belief in Witchcraft Increased During Periods of Reformation and Counter-
Reformation

  Belief in witchcraft reached a peak in the second half of the fifteenth
century, during the height of the Inquisition.  Erasmus and other reformers
had largely questioned the existence of witchcraft, and had sought to destroy
the superstitions on which belief in witchcraft was based.

   However, as religious wars broke out between Protestant sects and 
Catholicism, belief in witchcraft instead INCREASED!-- with the result that 
religious dissenters were frequently accused of being witches. Both Martin 
Luther and John Calvin believed in the existence of witches.  Luther boasted: "I 
would have no compassion on the witches; I would burn them all." He had four of
them burned to the stake in Wittenburg. Calvinism's extremist views on
authoritarianism and damnation, led to more witch burnings than any other
protestant sect.

   Both Luther and Calvin liked to quote Exodus 22:18, which states, "Thou
shalt not suffer a witch to live". Calvin demanded, "that there are witches
and that they must be slain...this law of God is a universal law." The
Anglican church in England was (relatively speaking) more moderate than the
Calvinists, killing a mere 1,000 witches (by hanging) over roughly a two
hundred year period, compared to 4,400 witches in Calvinist Scotland over a
ninety year period. Wherever Calvinism was strong, witches were systematically
hunted within the communities, and burned. (Paul Johnson, p 310)

  The Jesuits, were just as obsessed in burning witches as the Calvinists
were.  Witch burnings increased in Germany, Poland, and in the Low Countries
as the Counter-Revolution regained these territories for Catholicism.  The
lists of burnings are numerous and long.  One example gives a flavor of the
terror of the times: The Bishop of Wurtzburg (Philip Adolf von Ehrenberg)
burned over 900 witches during his term (1623-31)--including his nephew,
nineteen priests, and a child of seven years. (Ibid)

Witchcraft in England

  In the hysteria that followed the return emphasis on witches, witch-finders
were sometimes commissioned by a community to identify any witches among them.
In his ENGLAND'S GRIEVANCE IN RELATION TO THE COAL TRADE (1655), Ralph
Gardiner  described how such a witch-finder was paid by the town council of
Newcastle-on-Tyne in England in 1649. Arresting one woman who was accused of
witchcraft, the witch-finder:

  "in the sight of all the people, laid her body naked to the
   waiste, with her clothes over her head, by which fright and shame, all
   her blood contracted into one part of her body, and then he ran a pin
   into her thigh, and then suddenly let her coats fall, and then
   demanded whether she had nothing of his in her body, but did not
   bleed, but she being amazed, replied little, then he put his hand up
   her coats and pulled out the pin, and set her aside as a guilty person,
   and child of the devil, and fell to try others whom he made guilty."

  Fortunately in this case, the witch-finder (who had arranged for the
execution of some 220 women in just this way) was challenged by a lieutenant
colonel. Noting that the blood flow had been earlier cut off from the woman's
leg, he insisted that she be pricked again by the pin, this time after
allowing her blood to resettle.  This time, the woman passed, and her life
was therefore spared. (As quoted by Christina Hole's WITCHCRAFT IN ENGLAND,
Fitzhouse Books, London, 1990, p 75-6)

  Trial by ordeal (which originated from pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon times,
but was taken over by Christians who substituted Christ for Woden) was also
a common method for determining guilt for theft, homicide, adultery, and
witchcraft. One of the simplest ordeals called for stuffing bread or cake
down the accused's mouth.  If they choked to death, they were guilty.
There were numerous variations of the ordeal by fire.  A person might
be required to thrust their hand in boiling water and remove a stone at
the bottom of the vessel. In the other, the person was expected to walk
over red hot iron rods. If the burn healed quickly, this was taken as a
sign that the person was innocent.

  In the water-ordeal, a favorite for detecting witches, the accused was
bound hand and foot, and a rope tied around the waist, so the person could
be pulled out of the water.  After being thrown in, if the accused witch
sank, then the person was innocent.  But if the person floated, this was
taken as a sign of guilt.  Many a hapless individual died this way --if
they drowned, they were declared "innocent", but if they floated they
were declared witches and burned to the stake, or hanged.

  In 1645, an eighty year old Royalist clergyman, John Lowes was accused of
being a witch by an over-zealous witch-finder named Matthew Hopkins.  The
old man vehemently denied the charges of witchcraft brought against him.
His accusers threw him into the moat of Framlingham Castle. The hapless man
floated. His accusers made him "run backwards and forwards about the room
until he was out of Breath. Then they rested him a little and then ran him
again:  And thus they did for several Days and Nights together, till he was
weary of his Life, and was scarce sensible of what he said or did." (Ibid,
p 80-2 quoting in term from Francis Hutchinson, AN HISTORICAL ESSAY CONCERNING
WITCHCRAFT, 1718, quoting from John Rivett's letter to the author).

  Afterwards, he broke down and confessed to an incredible array of crimes
including signing a covenant with Satan, destroying cattle, and sinking a
ship. Once he recovered from his treatment, though, he retracted his
confessions and swore his innocence.  But it was too late.  He was tried
and executed along with seventeen other "witches" in August 1645. He had
asked for the Anglican burial service to be read over his corpse, but this
was denied him because of his crimes--so he read the service himself, on his
ride to the gallows.

Skeptical Reaction to Belief in Witchcraft Begins to Increase

  Christian humanists (following the example of Erasmus) noticed the
obvious connection between torture and the fantastic extracted confessions
that resulted.  However, their writings were frequently suppressed during
the religious-political hysteria of the times. Johann Weyer (1512-1576),
a physician, wrote how the belief in witches was pure superstition and
led to the murders of innocent people:

   "Of all the misfortunes which the various fanatical and corrupt opinions,
  through Satan's help, have brought in our time to Christendom, not smallest
  is that which, under the name of witchcraft, is sown as a vicious seed.
  The people may be divided against themselves through their many disputes
  about the Scriptures and church customs...still no such great misfortune
  results from that as from the thereby inspired opinion that childish old
  hags, whom one calls witches or wizards, can do any harm to men and animals.
  Daily experience teaches what cursed apostasy, what friendship with the
  Wicked One, what hate and fighting among fellow creatures, what dissension
  in city and in country, what numerous murders of innocent people through
  the devil's wretched aid, such belief in the power of witches brings forth.
  No one can more correctly judge about these things than we physicians whose
  ears and hearts are being constantly tortured by this superstition."

    "...For a time one hoped that its poison would be gradually eliminated
    through the healthy teaching of the word of God; but I see that in these
    stormy days it reaches farther and wider than ever...Almost all the
    theologians are silent regarding this godlessness, doctors tolerate it,
    jurists treat it while still under the influence of old prejudices: wherever
    I listen, there is no one, no one who out of compassion for humanity unseals
    the labyrinth or extends a hand to heal the deadly wound."

    "Therefore, I, with my limited means, have undertaken to dare to measure
    myself with this difficult affair, which disgraces our Christian Belief.
    It is not arrogance which impels me.  I know that I know nothing, and my
    work allows me little free time.  I know too that many others could do
    this work better than I.  I would like to incite them to out-do me; I will
    gladly listen to reason." (Johann Weyer, DE PRAESTIGIIS DAEMONNUM, 1563,
    as quoted by Jan Ehrenwald, MD, FROM MEDICINE MEAN TO FREUD, Dell, 1956)

  Weyer's writings on this subject were placed on the Catholic Church's List
of Forbidden Books.


                                      *  *  *

  The Renaissance had ended as a popular movement--almost abruptly during the
sixteenth century--following the Protestant Reformation and its counter 
movement, the Catholic Reformation.  Although, both the Renaissance and the 
Protestant Reformation were similar in that both were products of the 
individualism that had swept across Western Europe--actually both movements had 
completely opposite paradigms or outlooks on the world.  For the Renaissance 
looked towards the philosophy and artistic achievements of the Greeks and 
Romans. The Reformation leaders looked back towards the writings of the early
Christian fathers as their role model.  As a result, the Renaissance movement
tended to stress enjoyment of this life as opposed to the supernatural, and
the use of reason over faith. The Reformation emphasized just the opposite--
focusing on otherworldliness, a contempt for matters of the "flesh", and the
use of faith and obedience over reason.

  Against the background of religious wars between Catholics and Protestants,
and a resurgence of superstition (against witchcraft for example), a few
individuals who had been influence by Renaissance thought and writings,
were busy applying the scientific method towards new avenues of learning.
One early scientist--Galileo Galilei found that his astronomical studies
challenged the cherished religious doctrine that the earth was positioned
at the center of the universe (which in turn implied that the Earth was
the focus of God's attention). His heresy hearing, set before the powerful
tribunal of the Inquisition, would be one of the most publicized trials
in the annals of Western history.