SECTION IV
Chapter 1  - Influence of Other Religious Cultures on the Ancient Hebrews

  Ancient Judea/Israel was strategically situated at the crossroads between
powerful civilizations.  Thus the people of Israel were always "along the way"
for armies trying to connect the areas of Egypt, Babylon and Persia, and
Rome into great empires. The Israelites were already familiar with the cultures
of Egypt (from the Exodus days) and Assyria/Babylon (from their wars and
later captivity.) Persian dualism spread in the area after Xerxes the Great
conquered the Babylonian Empire and set the Israelite captives free.

  After the conquest by Alexander the Great of the ancient world (whose
borders extended from Egypt in the south through Israel and Persia, up
through the Greek states into Germany and India) there was an intermingling
of religious concepts. Religious ideas from India (whose monks renounced
all worldly pleasures in the search for their internal self) and Greek
gnosticism in particular were circulated throughout the empire built by
Alexander the Great.

  In the next sections we shall look more closely at how some of the
religions of Israel's neighbors were developing, concurrent with these
times--and look at possible influences these non-Jewish sources may have
had on the ancient hebrews. In the interests of time, we shall only
briefly look at the ancient religions of the Egyptians, the Mesopotamians,
the Persians, the Indians, and last, but not least, the Greeks.

Mesopotamia

   Mesopotamia means "land between the rivers.  Located between the Tigris
and Euphrates rivers, in what is today Iraq, Mesopotamia was the site of a
succession of civilizations.  Ancient Sumer (circa 3000 B.C.E.) was comprised of
a series of small city-states, of which Ur (mentioned in the Old Testament
in relation to Abraham) was the most powerful. Around 2550 B.C.E., a wave of
Semitic people under the leadership of Sargon swept down and conquered the
Sumerians.  By 2000 B.C.E., another series of Semitic invasions in the area led
to the emergence of the Babylonian empire, with Babylon as its capital.

--Garden of Eden

  The English archeologist George Smith, when deciphering some Assyrian
cuneiform tablets that he had discovered at Ninevah during the early
twentieth century, discovered an older version of the Garden of Eden.
It turned out that even the word "Eden"  was a Sumerian word meaning "plain".
This Sumerian paradise was a happy place, which was "pure, bright, and fair
where the lion does not make his kill nor the work carry off the sheep".
That is, until its only human occupant fell under of curse of the Sumner gods.

--Babylon

  The Babylonians conquered Sumer around 2500 B.C.E., under King Sargon I of
Akkad.  When King Hammurabi extended his empire over both Akkad and Sumer
in the 19th century B.C.E., the Babylonian language replaced the Sumerian
language.  Yet much of the older Sumarian myths and religious literature was
borrowed and worked into their own legends.  After declining in power, the
Babylonian empire became prominent again in the seventh and sixth centuries
B.C.E., especially during the reign of King Nebuchadnezzar (605-562 B.C.E.)

  Many of the books of the Old Testament are believed by historians to have
been written down after the hebrew captivity in Babylonia (586-538 B.C.E.)
Because many of the Babylonian legends appear to be older than the birth of
Moses and the hebrew nation--many scholars believe that the ancient Babylonian
culture impacted the hebrews. (Another view, of course, would be that the
Babylonians and the hebrews "shared" a common past.)

Babylonian Cosmology--Similarities and Differences with Genesis' Account

  Like Genesis, the Babylonian account of creation consists of seven
stages: In the beginning (stated "at that time"), there existed only a deep
watery chaos.  Out of the bosom of this chaos came forth the gods and the
formless universe. The second through fourth stages dealt with the battles
between the Babylonia gods and the dragons of the chaos.  Light was
introduced into the universe during the battle, and finally the only
task remaining was to defeat the grand dragon, Tiamat herself.  Tiamat
is slain and out of her skin is created the visible firmament of heaven.

   After the heavens were formed, the fifth stage emerges--whereby
mansions for the gods were created in the form of the sun, moon and
stars.  During the sixth stage, the gods created earth and populated
it with vegetables, birds, and fish. Described in the seventh and last phase
is the creation of animals and reptiles.

  Although there are some similarities with the Genesis version in
the creation account--such  as the seven stages, and the physical creation
beginning with light-- there are important differences, too.(That is, besides
the obvious differences in the multiple gods compared to one God). The
Babylonian account has the earth created AFTER the other heavenly bodies
(sun, moon, stars). The Genesis account states the earth was created
first. (See Section VIII, Chapter 3 for a discussion of this topic).  The 
seventh day in the  Babylonian account describes a day of activity. This is 
described as a day of rest in Genesis.

  According to the Babylonian creation myth, God initially created a single
being made up of a man joined together with a woman. Only later were they
separated into two entities--one male and the other female.  In Genesis 5:2,
God also appears to refer to Adam and Eve as one creature: "Male and female
created He them and blessed them and called their name Adam."

  The Babylonians worshipped many deities, but their favorite god was Marduk.
Marduk was a trinity of three gods in one--the god father Anu, the god mother
Anna (also called Istar) and the son Bel. Bel-Merodach was one of the gods 
that fought the creation battles against the great dragon Tiamat. He was the 
"healer and mediator for mankind; He revealed to mankind the knowledge of Ea 
(the god of the sea); in all incantations he is invoked as the god 'mighty to 
save' against evil and ill." (Professor Budge, Babylonian Life and History, 
p127).  Some scholars have gone so far as to describe Bel-Merodach as a 
Christ-like figure of the Babylonians.  Others have compared the imagery of 
these myths with that in the book of Revelations.

  Despite the similarities in theme between the Babylonian and Jewish
accounts of the creation, there is a major difference in style. While the
Babylonian texts are polytheistic, often with sexual overtones, the hebrew
version is monotheistic and "purified" of the gods/goddesses entanglements.
Its greater simplicity gives it a focus that is more deep and inspiring.
Thus, despite the fact that Assyria and Babylonia were considered to be the
more powerful civilizations in their day--it was the more advanced hebrew
religion that endured.

Heaven and Hell

   It is an interesting fact that the earliest books of the Bible--ie the
books of Moses, Judges, and Kings--never refer to a heavenlike existence where
the virtuous would dwell after death.--This despite the fact, that their
contemporaries, the Egyptians did believe in the achievability of an
immortal soul. It would seem that the early Israelites, while purifying their
sacred texts of the god/goddess myths, also classified beliefs in the afterlife
as mythical. (This would change after the Israelites culture came into contact
with Persian dualism during 530 B.C.E.  See Section VI, Chapter 1 for more
details on the ancient Judaic-Christian views of the universe.)

  As with the ancient hebrews, the Babylonians did not have a doctrine
that promised an afterlife in heaven for the virtuous.  This was not because
the Babylonians did not share in the universal desire for immortality.--In
the epic of Gilgamesh, this topic comes up, where a friend tries
to persuade Gilgamesh that his quest for immortality is in vain:

    "Gilgamesh, whither are you wandering?
     Life, which you look for, you will never find.
     For when the gods created man, they let
     death be his share, and life
     withheld in their own hands.
     Gilgamesh, fill your belly--
     day and night make merry,
     let every day be full of joy,
     dance and make music day and night.
     Put on clean clothes,
     and wash your head and bathe.
     Gaze at the child that is holding your hand,
     and let your wife delight in your embrace.
     These things alone are the concern of men."

  The Babylonians described their version of Hell in a narrative which has
a goddess descend into hell in search of her young husband.   The land of
death is described as a dreary place where there is no light, and where the
spirits live off dust for food and mud for meat.  The Old Testament refers
to the afterlife as "Sheol", also called the pit, in a manner that seems
similar to the Babylonian version.

Divine Punishment for Wickedness Sometimes Visited on Later Generations

  It was a common belief in Mesopotamia that the gods would punish all of
society if they were neglected. The punishment might not be immediate.--The
sinner might be allowed to live a prosperous life while later generations
"paid" the price.  (Footnote: The Hittites civilization (which existed
centuries before the Old Testament) had also written on their struggle to
understand this divine policy. THE ORIGINS OF HISTORY. Herbert Butterfield,
p 161)

   Likewise, ancient hebrews believed that later generations could be held
accountable by God for the sins of their FATHERS--as far down as the third
and fourth generation.  This is explicitly stated within the introduction
to the Ten Commandments:

  "Thy Lord thy God am a jealous God,  visiting the iniquity of the fathers
  upon the children to the third and the fourth generation of those who
  hate me." (Exodus 20:5)

--The Flood

  The land of Mesopotamia was a flat alluvial plain laid down by the Tigris
and the Euphrates rivers.  Unlike the Nile in Egypt whose inundations were
cyclical and predictable, flooding was often both violent and unpredictable.
The early Sumerian myths tell of a great Flood unleashed by a god. This
earlier story of a flood was borrowed and elaborated on by the Babylonians,
into at least two versions. In one version, the hero is named Atrahasis
(meaning "the exceedingly wise").  In the other version, the hero is identified
as Gilgamesh, who was a king in southern Babylonia.

  In all these versions of the flood, one of the gods becomes angry and
determines to destroy the earth with a flood. (Unlike in the Genesis version,
the god is NOT angry because the people have sinned--but instead is angered
because human civilization was too noisy--making it difficult for him to
sleep.) Another god comes to the rescue by directing one man to built a
large boat to save his family and the animals from the ensuing flood.

  The Genesis version is believed to be more recent--dated by many scholars
from around the 10th century B.C.E. One interesting similarity between the 
Genesis flood story and the older Sumarian/Babylonian versions, is that both 
tell how a dove was used to detect land.  In the EPIC OF GILGAMESH, this scene
is narrated as follows:

  "For a fifth day and a sixth day the mountains of Nisir held up the
  ship and did not let it waver.  When the seventh day came, I sent forth
  a dove and let it loose.  The dove flew away and shortly returned; she
  had seen no resting place and so she came back."

  (Of course, although the story of Noah's ark also employs a dove in a
similar manner, possibly this was just a coincidence--That is, sending
doves out from boats, as a test for land, may have been a common practice
throughout this area of the ancient world.)

--King Sargon of Akkad

  Babylon's greatest hero and king, was Sargon I of Akkad--who conquered
the area of Mesopotamia around 2500 B.C.E. According to ancient legends,
Sargon's mother saved her baby's life by hiding him in a basket of reeds
which was then placed upon the Euphrates river.  Downstream, Sargon was
found by a peasant who raised Sargon as his own son.  Sargon was eventually
helped by the goddess Ishtar, to become ruler of his nation. (Many historians,
noting the strong similarities with the story of Moses, believe the
legend of Sargon's birth existed for hundreds of years, long before Moses
reportedly led the Israelites out of Egypt--around 1300 B.C.E.)

--Ten Commandments and Hammurabi's Code

  In addition, archeologists have noted a strong similarity between the Old
Testament story of how Moses received the Ten Commandments on tablets of
stone from God and the story of the Code of Hammurabi (discovered in 1902).
Hammurabi, a Babylonian king, lived around 1728-1686 B.C.E.,( which scholars
believe to have been some four hundred years before Moses lived). These
laws were held to be of divine origin. Today, the steele containing Hammarbi's
code resides in the Louvre Museum in Paris, France). The upper panel of
Hammurabi's Code shows the king Hammurabi, with a long beard and turban--
receiving the divine tablets of law from the sun god, Shamash. The introduction
to the laws sounds surprisingly progressive-- stating that its purpose was to
"bring forth the victory of righteousness, and thereby prevent the strong
from unjustly prevailing over the weak... and to instruct the nation and to
further the well-being of the people."

  Some of Hammurabi's laws also show some similarities with those of Moses.
For example, in Hammurabi's code appears:

  "If a man shall put out the eye of another, then let his own eye be put
  out.  If a man shall knock out the teeth of another who is higher in rank,
  then let his own teeth be knocked out.

This idea is expressed in the Ten Commandments (Exodus 21:23-24), as

  "And if any mischief follow, then thou shalt give life for life, eye for
eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot."

  In Hammurabi's Code, native born slaves (usually enslaved for not paying
their debts) were guaranteed to be freed after three years:

"Three years shall they [the non-foreign born slaves] work in the house
of their buyer and in the fourth year he shall fix their liberty."

 Likewise, the hebrews only allowed a fellow hebrew servant to serve for
six years before being freed:

"If thou buy a Hebrew servant, six years shall he serve: and in the seventh
he shall go out free for nothing." (Exodus 21).

  Perhaps the most striking comparison between Hammurabi's Code and the
Mosaic laws in Exodus deal with oxen.  Per Hammurabi's Code:

  "If an ox, walking in the street gored a freeman and caused his death,
   the cause is not subject ot settlement.  But if the freeman's ox was
   a gorer and his city council had informed him that it was a gorer,
   and he did not paid its horns and tie up the ox, and the ox gored to
   death an aristocrat, he shall pay one-half mina of silver."

Compared to Exodus 21:28-36:

  "When an ox gores a man or a woman to death the ox shall be stoned, and
   its flesh not be eaten; but the owner shall be clear.  But if the ox
   has been accustomed to gore in the past, and its owner has been warned
   but has not kept it in, and it kills a man or a woman, the ox shall be
   stoned and its owner put to death also...If the ox gores a slave, male
   or female, the owner shall give to their master thirty shekels of silver,
   and the ox shall be stoned."

These parallels are even more striking, because it is generally believed that
oxen were NOT used by the early nomadic hebrews. (That is, oxen are used
by farmers to plow tracts of land--but are not used by desert wandering nomads.)
(quotes and commentary taken from Gerald A. Larue, ANCIENT MYTH AND MODERN
LIFE, Centerline Press, Long Beach, California, 1988m, p 130e.)

   Because of these similarities, many biblical scholars believe it highly
probable that Moses must have been directly or indirectly familiar with
the laws in Hammurabi's Code.

  There were also important dissimilarities between Hammurabi's Code and
the Ten Commandments. In Hammurabi's code, there are 282 different laws,
which describe different penalties for the wrongdoer or victim, depending
upon their social status as a priest, official, freedman, or slave.  The
hebrews had a more egalitarian view--whereby EVERY man and women had to
obey God's laws--regardless of their social status.

   Of all the Babylonian laws, one of them was amazingly progressive,
compared to what we have even today in modern society.  This law allowed
for the compensation of victims of robbery by the State:

  "If a robber is not taken, the city and the elders where the robbery
   took place shall restore everything to the householder of which he was
   despoiled as soon as he demands before a court that this be done"

--Tower of Babel

  Babel was the biblical name for the city of Babylon. The inhabitants
tried to build a tower so tall that it could reach heaven itself.  God
punished all the people by confounding their speech, creating great confusion.
This is the biblical explanation of how so many different languages developed.

  The Babylonians were famous for building tall ziggurats, which probably
was the basis for the story. Herodotus, the Greek writer described a huge,
impressive ziggurat during his travels to the region about 450 B.C.E.

--Babylonian New Year Festival and its Use of ScapeGoats

  Hebrew kings were anointed to become God's representatives on earth.
("Messiah" means anointed one).  The Babylonians also viewed their kings
as representatives of God on earth:  Throughout Mesopotamia, the kings were
considered upon their official accession to the throne--to be the
ADOPTED son of God.  Afterwards, they acted as a god on earth, and a
representative of the people for the other gods. (John Hinnells, PERSIAN
MYTHOLOGY, Peter Bedrick Books, New York, 1973, 1985, p 98)

  The Babylonian New Year festival (Akitu), was celebrated over a ten
day period.  The ENUMA, or epic of creation, was read to the people to
describe a fierce battle between Marduk, the god of heaven, and Tiamat, the
goddess of the deep--and symbolizing chaos.  In this way, the people were
reminded of how the current order of the cosmos had originally arisen out of
chaos.

  On the fifth day of the festival, a ritual was conducted whereby a
sheep was exorcised of his demons (symbolizing the removal of chaos from
the community).  The sheep's head was cut off, and his body was thrown into
the river.

  Biblical scholars believe there is a similarity in this ritual,
and that of the scapegoat ritual of the ancient hebrews.  During the
celebration of Yom Kippur, the sins of the community were transferred to
a goat--which was then thrown over a cliff outside of Jerusalem into the
wilderness, to rid the people of their sins.  (See Leviticus 16:8-10)

  On the eighth day of the festival, the Babylonian king, in his role as
the representative of the sinful community, submitted to ritual acts of
humiliation.--His symbols of regal power were taken away during this ritual,
and the priest slapped him on the face, commanding him to pray to Marduk.
After this was over, the king's royal insignia were restored, and other
ceremonies were conducted to ensure the continuation of order over chaos.

  The people celebrated in a carnival like atmosphere during the period when
the sheep was beheaded, and the king was absolved of the sins of the people.
Afterward the king was reinstated by the priest, the mood shifted to formal
ceremonies, that lead to a procession for believers to a sanctuary outside
the city.  On the tenth day, a banquet was held by the king and priests to
celebrate the redemption of the people before the gods.

--Babylonian Parallel to Job, the Faithful Servant of God

  The ancient Babylonians believed that the gods controlled the destiny of
individuals/nations. The mark of a good man was obedience to societal
and religious laws. Babylonian wisdom texts often emphasized the virtues
of prudence, modesty, and the avoidance of hostility. Sin, the violation of
the divine will, could be atoned for through sacrifice and prayer.

  Some Babylonian poems are composed as passionate cries from believers, who
failed to understand why sometimes the virtuous suffered.  For example, in one
Babylonian poem, there is a dialogue between a suffering religious man,
and his friend.  The religious man asks why those who worship the gods often
suffer--while those who are wicked, often prosper? "How have I profited", he
asks his friend, "that I have bowed down to my God?"  There is no real solution
given in the poem. The man's friend recommends that he accept his destiny in
good faith.

  This theme is of course similar to the book of Job in the Old Testament.
However, in Job's case, God was testing him to prove his loyalty.  Afterwards,
Job is rewarded with a long and prosperous life on earth.

The Introduction of Persian Dualism

  The official priests of Iran were called Magi. A hereditary priest caste,
the Magis were responsible for all matters of religion. In Persia, around
400-500 B.C.E., the Magis appear to have used the doctrine of dualism
to explain the presence of evil in a basically good world. The term dualism
is used to described the "dual" or twosome nature of the world, which
results from cosmic forces of good fighting against the forces of evil.
The founder of Persian dualism, Zarathustra (called Zoraster by the
Greeks) traditionally lived from 628-551 B.C.E. (although some archeological
evidence suggests he may have lived as early as the eleventh century B.C.E.)

  Zarathustra taught that the force of good was led by Ahura, the
"Lord of Enlightenment".  Ahura and the forces of good stood opposed to
the forces of evil led by Ahriman and his demons.  There were both
angels and demons in the divine hierarchy.  Man must align himself
either with the good powers, or the dark forces.  At death, every person's
life is weighed in balance.  If the good outweighs the bad, then the person
goes to heaven. If the bad outweighs the good, the evil doer fall into the
hands of the great devil, Ahriman and is doomed to hell.  Those in whom good
and evil are equal remain in an in-between state.  (Note: Persian dualism
was also discussed in Section VI, Chapter 1).

   Zorastrians taught that the end of the age was upon us, and that a great
crisis was at hand between the forces of good and evil.  In the end, a
savior would come, who would conquer the evil forces and bring about a new
world order. His name would be Victorius, Righteousness-incarnate, and the
Savior. During this time there would be a general resurrection of the dead.
After this great victory, the living and resurrected dead would be transformed
into immortal beings that cast no shadows in a new world of good.

  Zorastrianism became the dominant religion of the people of Iran during
the reign of the Persian kings Darius (522-486 B.C.E.) and Xerxes (486-465 
B.C.E.) The Persian belief in the appearance of a savior (who would conquer the 
evil forces in the world and make men immortal) was known to the early Jews in 
the centuries before Jesus' birth. After the Babylonian captivity under
Nebuchadrezzar in 586 B.C.E., the upper class and educated Jews were uprooted
from their home country and forced to live in a foreign culture.

  Roughly fifty years later, the Babylonians were defeated by the Persians.
The Persians allowed the Israelites to return home, and generously supplied
money to allow for the rebuilding of the Temple at Jerusalem.  The point is
that the two cultures did meet at this time in a friendly exchange.  That
the Jews of this time were aware of the religion of their benefactor can
been seen in the original book of Ezra which states  that "Cyrus, the
King, built the house of the Lord in Jerusalem, where they worship him with
eternal fire." Ezra probably wrote during the reign of the Persian king
Artaxerxes, who ruled from 404-358 B.C.E.

  Throughout history, it can be clearly demonstrated that whenever two cultures
meet, there is an exposure to new ideas, including religious beliefs.
Typically, whenever a conqueror imposes his "superior" religion upon the
populace, some old beliefs and rites of the existing population will still
remain in some form. These local native beliefs will then merge with the
official religion, creating new combinations/variations of beliefs and customs.

  Some scholars claim that it was AFTER the encounter of Jews with Persian
Dualism, that Judaism was transformed into a religion that believed in a
local, tribal God (who was more powerful, but "jealous" over the other gods)--
into a supreme God of the universe.  Jewish messianic views of a messiah
with semi-divine status, who would lead the Jews towards a new Jerusalem on
earth (after an apocalyptic battle between the good and evil whereby the old
order of the earth is destroyed) is also believed by some scholars to have
been influenced by Zorastrian dualism. This theme of an "apocalyptic"
battle between the forces of good and evil is prominent in many near Eastern
myths, such as the stories of Osiris and Tammuz.

Buddhism

  During the middle of the sixth century B.C.E., at around the time Cyrus the
Great had revolted from the Medes and was building Persia into a great
empire, Siddharta Gautama (founder of Buddhism) was born in India. Gautama
was the son of a very wealthy rajah. However, around the age of thirty, he
became repulsed at the luxury he possessed, in comparison to the stark pain
and poverty of most of the people.

   Reflecting on the pain, suffering, and death he saw around him, he
determined that all life was futile. He consequently gave up his family
fortune (leaving behind a beautiful wife and a young son) in order to search
for truth and contentment.

  He wandered around the countryside for many years as a poor beggar. At 
first he dwelt with hermit philosophers who lived in a cave.--But he found 
that they spoke clever words that had no real meaning. He led five of the 
hermits with him out into the jungles in search of another path towards 
salvation.

  For the next six years, he gave himself up to self-mortification, striving 
to reach Nirvana through pain and ascetism. It was said, that during this 
time Gautama practiced austerities the like of which had never before been 
seen, such as living on a grain of rice a day, or on a single sesamum seed. 
However, despite all Gautama's austerity, he found his six years were "like 
time spent striving to tie the air into knots." He finally realized that the 
path of asceticism and denial would also never lead to the road to salvation.  
And so he set off alone, this time far unhappier than ever before.  He had 
lived the live of a prince, a philosopher, and now an ascetic-- but could 
find no release for his internal suffering.

  Then, one day after despairing of his quest, he sat beneath a bo tree in
deep meditation, determined that he would not leave until he had found
salvation. Without warning, his whole being was swept up into a feeling of
enlightenment.  His whole spirit was suffused with ecstasy, which elevated
him to a higher state where he felt released at last--released from life and
the fear of death.  Ignorance was gone, and knowledge and goodness stood in
its place. He felt that he had completed his rebirth, and had attained the
state of the enlightened one.

  Following his enlightenment ("Buddha" means awakened or enlightened),
Gautama Buddha set out to share his experience with others. He preached
the Middle Way or Path, which sought to direct living towards a middle
road between self-indulgence and extreme asceticism. All followers were
urged to avoid the ten immoral actions:

  (1) do not destroy life
  (2) do not take what is not given
  (3) abstain from unchaste acts
  (4) do not lie or deceive
  (5) do not slander
  (6) do not use harsh language
  (7) avoid frivolous talk
  (8) do not covet
  (9) avoid ill will
 (10) avoid false views

  When asked early in his career, why there was so much suffering in the
world, and what could mankind do to find peace and contentment, the Buddha
answered by describing his doctrine of the Four Truths:  The First Truth
held that both birth and death bring sadness, and that life is utterly vain:
"The waters of the four great oceans are naught compared with the tears of
men as they tread the path of life." Secondly, Gautama taught that the
vanity of life is caused by the overindulgence of desire. (Indeed, Gautama
believed that his earlier mistakes were to overindulge even in the passions
of asceticism--that it was as much folly to go mad with pain, as it was to
get drunk with pleasure.)  Third, vanity can end only with the ending of all
desire.  Fourth and last, Gautama taught that desire can NOT be ended by
excessive asceticism, but by living a good, virtuous life--ie through the
eight noble paths of "Right Belief, Right Resolve, Right Speech, Right
Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Thought, and Right Meditation."

   Gautama stressed strong humanistic values in all of his doctrines--such
as the importance of living one's life to help all other living creatures
(humans AND animals). Buddha had argued that in focusing primarily on our
material wants, that we fail to see others as equal to ourselves. Buddha
urged his followers to love all mankind "with a mother's love." (See Section
VI, Chapter 4 for the full quote.)  Some of the Buddha's teachings are
reminiscent of the teachings of Jesus on the Sermon on the Mount. For
example, Buddha taught his followers "Hatred ceases by love, this is an old
rule." And, "If someone curses you, you must repress all resentment."

  As with the Hindu philosophers, Budda considered knowledge and insight to
lead toward the true path of salvation.   Buddha urged his followers to break
the chains which tie one to the wheel of existence. He identified ten fetters
or obstacles as: (1) belief in the existence of the self or ego, (2) doubt,
(3) reliance on good works, such as ascetic discipline (4) sensuality and lust,
(5) ill will (6) desire for rebirth on Earth, (7) desire for rebirth in
another heavenly realm, (8) pride, (9) self-righteousness, (10) ignorance.

  Much of the Buddha's message was considered radical: First, he taught
that there were no valid social distinctions in caste between high-born
and low-born, for men should instead be judged only according to their
deeds.  His teachings also left no room for gods, priests, and prayers.
"Who is there that has ever seen Brahma [God] face to face" declared
Gautama.  And with regard to prayer: "Could the farther bank of the river
Akirvati come over to this side no matter how much a man prayed it to do so?"

  The historical Buddha denied the separate existence of a soul for one's body
(unlike the Hindu and later Greek philosophers of his time).  He claimed the 
soul to be no more than a name for the totality of human desires. He gave the 
analogy of a chariot-- which is made up of wheels, shaft, axle, carriage, etc.  
Just as there is no real existence of a chariot when these are all removed, 
so the soul is made up of desires and other psychic frames of mind, that 
disappears when all its components are taken away. Thus, it followed that 
transmigration of souls did not exist. Only the deeds, not the doers, 
continue on from one generation to the next.

  To Buddha, holding onto this notion of a permanent "soul" leads to an
egocentric view of the world--an artificial division of the world between
"me" and everything else. One must abandon this egocentric view of the
world in order to enter into a freer, happier realm of existence, which
is nirvana.

  Per Buddha, the Law of Karma (an inevitable and powerful "law of deed" )
operated within the universe, and was the mechanism through which righteous
men could throw off their chains to attain the blessed release of Nirvana.
Those who were burdened with desire--either for material possessions or
to be born again, will experience rebirth through karma, and thus continue
in the chain of suffering. The wise, who lose their desire for rebirth
"are extinguished at death like a lamp." (Ibid., p 61)  (Over time however,
many sects within Buddhism interpreted nirvana as a heaven-like existence,
and a reward for a virtuous life.)

  Scholars have pointed out that the original form of Buddhism was more
interested in morality and ethics than a universal cosmology. Indeed, there
is no Supreme Deity behind the Buddha's original doctrines and morality.
The universe always existed--without beginning and without end. All life
that dwells in the universe is constantly changing from one form into
another through repetitive cycles moving from birth into death.

  For the first centuries, Buddhism remained a relatively small and
unimportant sect among many other small sects in India.    Gradually,
some of the rajahs of India converted to Buddhism, partly because they saw
its value in wrestling control from the hands of the long-dominant priestly
caste. In the middle third century B.C.E., the powerful King Asoka expanded
his large Buddhist empire into northern India.  Before converting to Buddhism
he was reportedly a ruthless conqueror.  After becoming a Buddhist, he
repented of his violent wars--and became a gentle ruler who built temples,
schools, and likewise provided for the needs of his subjects.  He also
banned the royal hunt, as he now believed it wrong to kill animals.   Asoka
reportedly sent missionaries out all over the known ancient world--from
Burma and Thailand in the East, to Greece, Egypt, and possibly even the near
East (including Palestine).  Some scholars believe Buddhist monks may
have been active even as late as the first century C.E. in Palestine and Greece.

  Roughly the same time, Buddhist monks successfully converted some of the
brahmans who lived in the Greco-Roman culture in the kingdom of Bactria
(which is located today on the northwest borders of West Pakistan.)

  Roughly five hundred years after Buddha's death, two large schools of
Buddhism emerged. The Hinayana school meaning "Lesser Vehicle" (implying the
use of a smaller raft or ferry to cross over the river into nirvana), was
the more traditional branch of the two. The Hinayana school stressed
meditation and living an ascetic lifestyle in Buddhist monasteries. One's
spiritual preparation is what is considered important, instead of the material
welfare of the individual. The universe is believed to be an endless changing
of life from one form into another.

    The other school of Buddhism (called the Mahayan meaning the "Greater
Vehicle"), emerged after Buddhist monks met up with the Greco-Roman culture
in the kingdom of Bactria (located today on the northwest borders of West
Pakistan). The converted brahmen merged their earlier beliefs with
Buddhist concepts, bringing with them their speculative philosophy and
cosmic themes on the origin of the universe.  The Mahayan school of Buddhism
claimed that Buddha was no ordinary man, but a divine god (supernaturally
conceived) who had been sent down from heaven as the savior of men. Earlier
traditions had spoken of Buddha being tempted by Mara when he was under the
Bo tree--this was depicted more as a mental or spiritual battle. Now
this later became embellished, under the Mahayan school, as a physical
temptation whereby Mara offered him great wealth and the sensual pleasures
of his beautiful daughters, in order to thwart his great purpose.

  Over the centuries, Buddhism splintered further into different sects, as
various groups of monks began interpreting Buddha's doctrines along different
outlooks.  Mahayan Buddhists had taught that Buddha's divine spirit returned
to earth, reincarnating itself in various generations inside certain
exceptionally holy men called Bodhisattvas, "Living Buddhas". Anyone could
be the Bodhisattva, or cosmic being who was chosen to enlighten his generation--
both laymen or monks. This form of Buddhism eventually spread to China, Korea,
Japan, and Tibet.  In Tibet, Mahayana Buddhism met up with other religions,
(including possibly some early version of Christianity), merging into a form
very different from mainstream Buddhism. Tibetian Buddhism is known as
Lamaism, whose spiritual leader, the Dalai Lama, is venerated as the
Bodhisattva.

    Another school (which refers to themselves as Theravada Buddhists,
(or "teaching of the elders") worships relics and statues (such of them
gigantic in size) of Buddha. Theravada Buddhism became strong in Thailand,
Cambodia, Laos, Ceylon, and Burma through the efforts of missionaries.

  Zen and Shin Buddhism (which both originated in Japan) are the sects
most popular in the West.  Zen Buddhists revere a monk named Amida, who 
purportedly became transformed into a Buddha. He promised rebirth into 
another heaven-like existence, to all those who follow his doctrines. Zen 
Buddhists believe that each person originally existed in a state of 
Buddhahood. This state can only be regained by restoring one's former
state of mind through a focused series of meditations and the inner
experience of ultimate reality.

   Ironically, Buddhism became nearly extinct in India, its land of origin.
By the twelfth century C.E., Hindu priests had largely won back control of the
countryside. Invading Islamic armies successfully extinguished what was left
of Buddhism in India. Buddhism remained strong in surrounding countries --
such as Tibet, China, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia and Japan (where it merged
with Shintoism).  In modern times, communists have been one of the greatest
enemies to Buddhism, attempting to ruthlessly wipe out Buddhism in countries
that they control, such as China, Tibet, Laos and Cambodia.

  Despite the persecutions, Buddhism is alive and strong, and one of the major
world religions today.  Proponents of Buddhism point out that it is the only
world religion that has truly been characterized by gentleness and
peacefulness--For its followers have typically NOT resorted to violence,
persecution, inquisitions, or witch hunts against NON-believers.  Critics of
Buddhism maintain that the passive, ascetic attitude of the Buddhists prevents
them from engaging in the sciences and technology--in an attempt to improve
this world.

Egyptians

  The ancient Egyptians possessed one of the greatest civilization known in
the ancient world. The Old Testament attests to the powerful influence Egypt
held on the ancient hebrews.-- Moses reportedly had been raised by an Egyptian
princess. The hebrews who entered Canaan as the first "Israelites" had
been raised up in Egypt, albeit as slaves. This means that the ancient
hebrews should have been exposed to Egyptian beliefs and practices.

  The ancient Egyptians worshiped a large number of half-animal gods
over the millennium, whose names and protections changed over time. Only
one god, Osiris, managed to hold his place in the affections of the
people throughout the long history of Egypt. Originally, Osiris was
one of the gods associated with agriculture.  Seeing the annual birth and
rebirth of vegetation each year with the clockwork precision of the seasons,
Osiris later began to be associated with rebirth and resurrection.

  The tale was told how Osiris, the god of nurturing Light and Good,
was treacherously murdered by Set, the god of withering Darkness and Evil.
When Osiris' wife, Isis discovered the murder, she searched up and down
the land to find the body of her husband.  Her tears during her search,
accumulated into the Nile and caused it to overflow its banks. She finally
found the body and buried it. But while attending her fatherless son,
Horus, the evil Set found the body of Osiris.  He cut it into pieces, hiding
each fragment in a different place.   Isis thus set out a second time,
traversing the land until she had found all the pieces-- This time she
safely buried her husband's body in a sealed tomb.

  Miraculously Osiris was resurrected from death, and taken into heaven.
In heaven, it was believed that Osiris acted as Judge, whereby if a
human had lived a moral life, then his spirit would dwell in heaven with him
for eternity.  Believing in dualism (that a spirit resides within the
human body, which is released upon death), Egyptian theologians taught
that upon death, the soul set out on a perilous journey, whereby evil
spirits tried to intercept them.  If the soul had been adequately provided 
with magical spells, then it could pass through all these hurdles, and glide 
safely to Judgment Hall in heaven, before the celestial throne of the 
Judge and god, Osiris.

  There the soul had to give a moral account of itself before Osiris
and forty-two associate gods. If the soul could truly say:

  "I come before ye without sin, and have done that wherewith the gods
  are satisfied. I have not slain, nor robbed, nor stirred up strife,
  nor lied nor lost my temper, nor committed adultery, nor stolen
  temple food...I have given bread to the hungry, clothes to the naked,
  a ferry to him who had no boat"

--then the soul went straightway to heaven.  (The heart of the deceased is
often represented as weighed by the jackal-headed god Anubis against the
symbol of Maat--Truth and Order--while accounting for their past moral
life before the presence of Osiris.) If the person did not lead a moral
life, then its soul was either cast back down to earth, where it was
reincarnated in some other low form such as a pig, or thrown into a
terrible hell.

   In the early dynasties, it was believed that only Egyptian kings had 
souls, and therefore had any opportunity for resurrection. During these 
times, only Egyptian kings were embalmed and mummified, and then entombed 
within huge pyramids.  Gradually, centuries later, the promise of immortality 
was extended to all people--not just kings. During these later periods, 
therefore, anyone who could afford the mummification that could house its 
human body did so.  Some animals that were believed to be divine (such as 
cats, crocodiles, bulls and rams) were accorded a soul, and mummified in the 
hopes that they too would be resurrected. So many cats were mummified during 
this period, that the cemetery at Beni Hasan has been used in the twentieth 
century as a quarry for fertilizer.

  A passage from the Egyptian BOOK OF THE DEAD tells of one dead soul
giving the testimony of his earthly life within the Hall of Truth, to Ma
the goddess of truth. Kneeling, the departed calls out the names of the
forty-two Egyptian gods. He swears to each one individually that he has
lived a life of purity, by pledging the following (Note: The names of
the Egyptian assessors are omitted here for simplicity):


 I have not done evil.
 I have not robbed with violence.
 I have not stolen.
 I have done no murder; I have done no harm.
 I have not defrauded the offerings [of the gods]
 I have not diminished oblations.
 I have not plundered the god.
 I have spoken no lies.
 I have not snatched away food.
 I have not caused pain.
 I have not committed fornication.
 I have not caused shedding of tears.
 I have not dealt deceitfully.
 I have not transgressed.
 I have not acted guilefully.
 I have not laid waste the ploughed land.
 I have not been an eavesdropper.
 I have not set my lips in motion [against another]
 I have not been angry and wrathful except for a just cause.
 I have not defiled the wife of any man.
 I have not defiled the wife of any man [ie this line is repeated here]
 I have not polluted myself.
 I have not caused terror.
 I have not transgressed.
 I have not burned with rage.
 I have not stopped my ears against the words of Right and Truth.
 I have not worked grief.
 I have not acted with insolence.
 I have not stirred up strife.
 I have not judged hastily.
 I have not been an eves dropper.
 I have not multiplied words exceedingly.
 I have done neither harm nor ill.
 I have never cursed the king.
 I have never fouled the water.
 I have not spoken scornfully.
 I have never cursed God.
 I have not stolen.
 I have not defrauded the offerings of the gods.
 I have not plundered the offerings to the blessed dead.
 I have not filched the food of the infant, neither have I sinned against
   the god of my native town.
 I have not slaughtered with evil intent the cattle of the gods.

(E.A. Wallis Budge, THE EGYPTIAN BOOK OF THE DEAD--(THE PAPYRUS OF ANI)
EGYPTIAN TEXT TRANSLITERATION AND TRANSLATION, Dover Publications, Inc,
New York,  1967 which is a republication of the original work published
in 1895 under the Trustees of the British Museum, Plates XXXI. AND XXXII.
[The Negative Confession], pp 347-9)

   The similarities between the moral code embodied in the Egyptian BOOK
OF THE DEAD and the TEN COMMANDMENTS of the Hebrews are striking.  Both
moral laws contain exhortations against stealing, murder, fornication,
bearing false witness against one's neighbor, or cursing God.  Missing
from the BOOK OF THE DEAD are the commandments to honor one's father and
mother, and not to covet [desire] our neighbors' possessions. There is also
no mention of a "jealous" God in the BOOK OF THE DEAD who commands that no
other gods are to be worshiped, no graven images made, and that a sabbath is
to be observed for His worship.

   There are some commandments in the Egyptian BOOK OF THE DEAD which are 
humane, and arguably good moral commandments for mankind--but which do not 
appear in the TEN COMMANDMENTS. For example, there are exhortations against 
not being angry or wrathful without just cause, not causing violence, not 
causing harm to others, and even not causing any one to weep.  Modern day 
environmentalists would be pleased if they had the biblical authority of a 
Ten Commandments to urge the faithful to never "foul" the water, or to 
"filch the food of the infant".

  According to the religious beliefs in the Egyptian BOOK OF THE DEAD,
the departed one placed his heart on the balance of truth, where it
was weighed by the Egyptian gods Hor and Anubis. If it was announced that
the weight of the heart was equal to truth, then the heart was placed back
into the chest of the departed one, restoring it to life.  He was then allowed
to enter "the boat of the sun" and was taken to the Elysian fields of the
blessed.  While the physical body remained in the tomb, the soul, represented
as a bird with a human head, soared to heaven.  There it became one with
the great gods.

  Should the weighing of the heart find that evil deeds outweighed their
good deeds, the departed was devoured by a great beast, or else returned
to the earth in the shape of a despised animal, such as a pig. (A pig was
considered unclean by Egyptians just as it was to the hebrews.)

  Amulets and magical incantations were sold which purportedly protected
the initiate during his spiritual journey to the next world.  The magical 
incantations were believed to achieve power by calling out a god's special 
name.  Interestingly, the ancient hebrews also ascribed a mystical reverence 
in pronouncing the name of Yahweh, or God.  For this reason, Yahweh's full 
name did not appear in the sacred texts, and only a holy priest was allowed 
to pronounce it.

Monotheism

  Pharoah Amonhotep (c 1350 B.C.E.), was the first to introduce a state religion 
based on one God--Aton, the god of the sun. He gave up his original name 
Amonhotep because it contained the name of the old god, Amon. He also renamed 
himself Akhnaton, which meant "Spirit of Aton". The Hymn to the one God Aton 
contains poetical tributes to the goodness of Aton--which some scholars 
believe have strong parallels to Psalms 104 of the Old Testament.

  Some have speculated that Moses may have been exposed to this religion
when he lived in Egypt.  Regardless of one's views on this, the hebrews
made an important improvement on Akhenaten's one God. For they conceived of
him as a TRANSCENDENT, immaterial being--whose spirit and awareness is
EVERYWHERE--as opposed to confined to a single aspect of nature, such as
the sun.

  Akhaton's monotheism was short lived.  Upon his death, the Egyptian priests
quickly regained control, and Egypt reverted back to polytheism.

Biblical References to the ancient Hebrews' Journey From Egypt to the
  "Promised Land"

    Below are Old Testament stories that deal with the ancient hebrews'
exodus from Egypt, and their journey into Canaan (or Promised Land).

--The Exodus of Hebrews out of Egypt Under Moses

  According to Exodus 12:37, "And the children of Israel journeyed from
Ramses to Succoth, about six hundred thousand on foot that were men,
beside children."

  Taking this passage literally, would mean that there was roughly some
million Israelites who had left Egypt after counting women and children.
A million people is such a hugh number--that if this many people marched
in a single column, it would be SIXTY miles long. The desert would obviously
not be able to support such a huge gathering, which is why the bible talks
about the miraculous food of manna being provided by God.

  But there is another possibility as well. According to Manfred Barthel
on this subject, large numbers

  "...are not necessarily what they seem. The word ELEF ordinarily means
"thousand", [in Hebrew] but it also has the secondary meaning of "clan", or
as we would say today, "extended family".  This is perhaps what the authors
of Exodus had in mind--that six hundred families followed Moses out of Egypt, 
which also might explain why the Egyptian chroniclers didn't bother to waste 
even a single hieroglyph on the disappearance from their midst of a few 
hundred miserable nomads." (Ibid, p 112)

--The Crossing of the Red Sea

According to Exodus 14:21-22, 28

  "...and the LORD caused the sea to go back by a strong east wind all
that night, and made the sea dry land, and the waters were divided.

  "And the children of Israel went into the midst of the sea upon the
dry ground...

 "And the waters returned, and covered the chariots, and the horsemen,
and all the host of Pharaoh that came into the sea after them; there remained
not so much as one of them."

  In some recent translations the scene has been changed from the Red Sea
to the "Sea of Reeds" --which is a literal translation of the Hebrew
phrase YAM SUF which appears in the earliest Hebrew texts. According to
Manfred Barthel in WHAT THE BIBLE REALLY SAYS, "Whatever this Sea of Reeds
might have been, it is clearly not the same as the Red Sea, which has never
had reeds growing along its shores; its eastern shore, the Sinai Peninsula,
is completely barren." (ibid p 113) (The author goes on to note that this
is a very controversial topic.)

--The Miracle of the Pillar of Fire

  According to Exodus 13:21, "the Lord went before them by day in a pillar
of a cloud, to lead them the way; and by night in a pillar of fire, to give
them light; to go by day and night."

  This "pillar of a cloud" sounds familiar to a large dust devil--a sand
whirlwind that has been known to reach as high as sixty feet in the desert.
Likewise, the "pillar of fire" sounds familiar to a flare up of a natural
petroleum spring--which if true would be recognizable from a large distance.
(Ibid, p 114).  Others historians have noticed the similarity in this
description with the appearance of clouds in the sky after a volcano has
erupted in the distance.

--Miracle of the Burning Brush

   There exists a shrub in Israel that is known as "the gas plant"
or sometimes "the burning bush".  Called DICTAMNUS ALBUS (It's Latin name)
it grows best in warm dry climates and on chalky soil. According to
Manfred Barthel in his book  WHAT THE BIBLE REALLY SAYS,"

  "Its sturdy rootstock sends up numerous stiff, vertical stalks bearing
  tough, dark green leaves that are shaped something like the leaves of an
  ash tree.  The rose-colored blossoms--which look, appropriate enough, like
  miniature candles--appear in early summer.  The entire plant is honeycombed
  with tiny oil sacs that secrete large quantities of volatile oils in hot
  weather.  Direct rays of the sun may ignite the oil, which then burns off so
  quickly that the plant itself does not catch fire; in other words, it is not
  consumed.  Visitors to Israel may have the opportunity to see any number of
  burning bushes in the desert if the sun is hot enough." (P 109-110)


-- Turning of Aaron's rod into a serpent

  "And Moses and Aaron went in unto Pharaoh, and they did so as the LORD
had commanded: and Aaron cast down his rod before Pharaoh, and before his
servants, and it became a serpent.

  Then Pharaoh also called the wise men, and the sorcerers: now the
magicians of Egypt, they also did in like manner with their enchantments.
For they cast down every man his rod, and they became serpents: but
Aaron's rod swallowed up their rods." (Exodus 7:10-12)

  In ancient Egypt, some species of serpents were believed to be endowed
with great supernatural powers. Because snakes molt their old skin, and grow
back new skin, they were worshipped by many ancient cults as symbolizing
immortality.  When Aaron's serpent devours the other, the author of these
verses knows that this is symbolic that Aaron's powers are greater than
those of the Egyptian magicians. (A popular magician trick of the time was
to render snakes asleep/awake through the use of certain drugs.)

  When the Pharaoh is not convinced that he should free the hebrews (his
heart had been hardened by God), God unleashed seven plagues on the
countryside.  Although there are no Egyptian records that verify that these
calamities ever took place--still the nature of these pestilence plagues
were not unusual occurrences in Egypt, (just as they were not uncommon in
the rest of the ancient world).

--The Miracle of the Branch that Made Waters Sweet

  In Exodus 15:25, we are told that "...and the Lord shewed [Moses] a tree,
which when he had cast into the waters, the waters were made sweet ... "

This miracle can be shown to any traveler today in the area, for Bedouin
shepherds still use the branches of the barberry bush to make alkaline
water sweet enough to drink. (ibid p 115)

--The Miracle of Manna

  According to Exodus 16:14-5, the hebrew found manna (which means "what
is this" in Hebrew) had been provided for them during their forty years
in the wilderness:

  "And when the dew that law was gone up, behold, upon he face of the
  wilderness there lay a small round thing, as small as the hoar frost
  on the ground.  And when the children of Israel saw it, they said to
  one another, It is manna: for they wist not what it was. And Moses said
  unto them, 'This is the bread which the Lord hath given you to eat.'"

  Professor Avinoam Denin of the University of Jerusalem has identified
several plants (of the family Hammada salicornica)--all of them native
to the Sinai peninsula, which secrete sticky-sweet droplets, after
being punctured by insects. (Ibid, p 116)

--The Miracle of God's Presence on Mt Sinai

  According to Exodus 19:18,

  "And mount Sinai was altogether on a smoke, because the LORD descended
upon it in fire; and the smoke thereof ascended as the smoke of a furnace,
and the whole mount quaked greatly."

   As many geologists would tell you, the above is an excellent description
of the aftermath of a volcano eruption. Although there is no trace of
volcanic activity on Sinai Peninsula, Moses could have seen such scenes
when he lived in the land of Midian. (Ibid, p 118)

Impact of Egyptian Civilization on the Greeks

  Being one of the oldest and greatest cultures of its time, Egyptian
philosophy and religion  had a major impact on other major civilizations--
notably the ancient Greeks.  The Greek traveler and historian Herodotus
(484-425 B.C.E.) wrote of his awe at the sight of the ancient pyramids (which
were around two thousand years old and in ruins even by the fifth century
B.C.E., when he was visiting them). According to Herodotus, his research on
Egyptian religion convinced him that the names of the Greek gods came
originally from Egypt--and that the Egyptians were the first to teach of an
IMMORTAL soul which goes through a series of rebirths and deaths on earth.

  Plutarch (c. 46-120 C.E.) wrote how a number of Greek intellectuals--
including Solon, Pythagoras, and Plato-- had visited Egypt and studied
their religious philosophies and rites.  One author, Iamblichus (c 350-325 C.E.) 
wrote how Pythagoras lived in Egypt for twenty two years, where he studied 
astronomy and geometry, and was even allowed into the innermost sanctuaries 
of Egyptian temples to observe firsthand the initiation into the Egyptian 
mysteries. He later traveled to Babylon (he was captured as a prisoner of war) 
whereupon he studied with the Magii. Some twelve years later, he returned to 
southern Italy, where he spent the remaining thirty-forty years of his life.

  Although the Greeks were greatly impressed with Egyptian culture and
knowledge, they differed with how the Egyptians conceived of their gods in 
semi-animal form. Instead, the Greeks viewed their mythological gods
and goddesses in humanlike form--often with major character flaws and
weaknesses.  Other Greek philosophers (such as Plato) contemplated on the 
existence of a perfect spiritual God--who lived in the highest realm of the 
universe.

  In the next chapter, we shall trace the development of Greek philosophy
and religion, and explore how its concepts had a powerful impact on both
Judaism and Christianity.