Section 1 -- General Background of Christianity and Judaism     
Chapter 1 -- The Legacy of the Old Testament Prophets          

  Scholars have argued for centuries on the meaning of Jesus' life on earth 
and his message of the kingdom of God. Some schools have argued that this task 
is impossible. That is, they have argued that so many layers of LATER Christian 
traditions have found their way into the Gospels-- that it is impossible to sort 
out which traditions were originally from Jesus and which ones came from later 
Christian groups.

  Scholars believe for example that the gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke
that have come down to us in the collection of the New Testament, were
written sometime between 66 and 100 C.E. The gospel of John is believed 
to have been written sometime later, around 100-120 C.E. Since Jesus was 
probably crucified around 30-36 C.E., this means that the gospels in the New 
Testament were probably written one or more generations AFTER the one that 
personally knew Jesus. (Note: C.E. stands for Common Era, sometimes referred to 
as the Christian Era). 

   All of the ORIGINAL copies of the New Testament have been lost! Because
the original gospels were probably written on papyrus, which tends to rot
over time, they had to be recopied down over the centuries.  In the 1860's,
the two oldest known Bibles, dating from the fourth century C.E., were made
public. One of these fourth century C.E. Bibles was discovered in an old 
monastery in the Sinai, and the other was published from within the private 
library of the Vatican. These were preserved because they were written on 
vellum-—or animal skins, as opposed to papyrus.

  The publication of these Bibles demonstrated that important differences
had evolved between these fourth century C.E. Bibles, and more later versions--
such as the King James/Catholic versions of the Bible. (See Section III,
Chapter 3 for details.) Of course, because the original gospel writings do
not exist, there is no way of knowing whether, these fourth century C.E. Bibles,
ALSO contain at least some revisions/translation differences in them. 

   Despite the obvious problems of not having the ORIGINAL writings of the
New Testament--as we shall see, there are INDIRECT methods which can be
employed to test whether any "changes" or revisions were later made in them
that affected the Bibles that have came down to us today. For example, some
of the writings of the early Church fathers refer to very EARLY texts and
sayings from Jesus--which can be studied for differences in both the fourth
century C.E. Bibles, and more modern versions of the Bible as well.

  The very first 300 years in the history of the early Christian Church was a
CRUCIAL period for Christianity--because it represents the time BEFORE the
establishment of the Orthodox church as the authoritative head of Christianity.
As we will see, prior to the fourth century C.E., there were a large and diverse
number of Christian groups.  These groups fought bitterly with each other,
not only over the details of Jesus' life, but also over the very "nature" of
Jesus (ie his role as the Christ) and the implications for believers. Today,
the doctrine that has come down to us in the West, is largely from the "winner"
of these Christian sects--the Orthodox Church--which became the universal,
or Catholic Church in the West. (See Section IV).

   Starting with the Council of Nicene in 325 C.E., other Christian (but
"non-Orthodox") groups were declared "heretical", their books banned, and
their practices outlawed. This era of domination and authority would be
reinforced by even later church councils, followed by roughly a thousand
year period that many historians now refer to as the Dark Ages.

   During these earliest centuries, the bitter doctrinal disputes that
developed among the early Christians could have been easily resolved, if Jesus
had left us a written record of his own life. As we shall see, the fact that
he had not, left a void in certain doctrinal matters, which later generations
of Christians have violently disagreed over ever since--even down into modern
times.  We shall take a brief look at some of these doctrinal disputes too.

  Although we cannot have ABSOLUTE knowledge regarding every single detail of
Jesus' life and ministry, still, there are important DIRECTIONAL aspects
that can be observed with the use of a little logic and detective work.
In starting our inquiry into our Judaic-Christian heritage, we will attempt
to be aware of the political/social settings of the early writers on Jesus.
In this way, we can start peeling away the layers of later traditions, in
our attempt to arrive at the core of Jesus' original message.

  Since Christianity is largely seen as a continuation of Jewish traditions
and writings, we will begin our quest into the review of our Judaic-Christian
heritage, by examining the history of the Old Testament, along with its famous
prophets. From there, we will move on to that group of Jews that should have
known Jesus the best—i.e., his original JEWISH apostles and followers. After
this, we shall examine the hellenistic culture of many of the earliest
Christian converts, and how these influenced and later merged in with the
doctrine of the Catholic Church.

The Foundation of Judaism

  Judaism is based on a foundation of monotheism--or belief in one God.
According to the ancient Jews, God formed a Divine COVENANT (ie a legal
binding contract) with them--making them His "Chosen People".  To religious
Jews, ALL events of their past are interpreted according to how obediently
their people have complied with God's covenants (or Promises). If they obeyed
God's commandments, God would make them a great and prosperous nation. However,
if they disobeyed God's commandments, they would incur His divine wrath.

  Especially during the centuries close to the times of Jesus, Judaism was
well-respected in many areas of the ancient world because of its advanced
views on monotheism. In addition, Judaism, (unlike other ancient religions,
such as that of the Greeks), had a carefully chronicled HISTORY of its
founders/prophets--which were traced all the way back to the creation of the
universe.  This detailed HISTORY gave Judaism a special legitimacy and
respect within the ancient world.

   The Jewish book of Genesis begins with the creation of the universe and
of the first couple on earth--Adam and Eve.  Adam and Eve originally lived
in paradise, but were thrown out for eating fruit from the Tree of
Understanding between Good and Evil.  All the peoples on the earth are
descendants of Adam and Eve.

  According to Genesis, God became angry when later generations of men on
earth became sinful.  He ordered a rain to flood the entire earth,
killing all living creatures--except for the family of Noah and the animals
they had saved on a large ark. Afterwards, God vowed never again to destroy
all life on the earth by a flood!  This vow represented God's first covenant,
which was made between Himself and all of mankind. God then created the
rainbow as a reminder of this covenant:

  "I establish my covenant with you, that never again shall all flesh be
  cut off by the waters of a flood, and never again shall there be a
  flood to destroy the earth.. I set my bow in the cloud, and it shall
  be a sign of the covenant between me and the earth.." (Genesis 9:11-14)

  God's second covenant was made generations later, explicitly to the HEBREWS
(as opposed to all of mankind). Here God promised Abraham:

  ".. I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you and make your
  name great, so that you will be a blessing.  I will bless those that bless
  you, and curse him who curses you; and through you shall all the families
  of the earth be blessed." (Genesis 12:2-3)

  This promise was repeated several times throughout the Old Testament.
God's ultimate plan for the children of Israel, was to make them a "kingdom
of priests, and an holy nation" (Exodus  19:6) dedicated to His worship.
In exchange for obeying God's Laws, Jews would be the "Chosen People"
of God. God commanded all males to undergo the rite of circumcision as
a sign of this covenant between Him and the hebrews.

Period of the Great Prophets

  When the Jews were held in bondage in Egypt, God is reported to have
remembered his promise to Abraham and to have chosen Moses to lead the tribes
of Israel out of Egypt and into the Promised Land of Israel. (Most historians
believe this event took place sometime around 1300 B.C.E.). The first five
books of the Old Testament--Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and
Deuteronomy, are sometimes referred to as the Pentateuch, from the Greek
words meaning "five books".

   In the Pentateuch, the ancestry of Judaism is traced back to Adam
and Eve, up until the times when Moses led the descendants of Abraham
out of bondage from Egypt and into the Promised Land of Canaan. 

[Note: There is a controversy raging today whether the Exodus story in the Bible 
really happened--since modern archeology and other experts have find no solid 
evidence to support it. That is, nearly 100 years of excavations have yielded no 
conclusive evidence that the Israelites were ever slaves in Egypt, wandered in 
the wilderness for 40 years, or conquered Canaan with Joshua as their leader. 
Instead, they archeologists have uncovered evidence that Israel arose 
indigenously out of Canaan.   Of course that does not eliminate the possibility 
that there were already hebrews living in Canaan that were joined, by (say) a 
band of Semites leaving Egypt, to explain the Exodus story.  Still most 
archeologists agree that the large numbers of Israelites (reportedly as high 
as 5 million) described in the Exodus leaving Egypt almost certainly did not 
take place.

   More moderate to liberal Jews are not concerned as much with all the literal 
facts of the Exodus being true.  Instead the look at the spiritual meaning of 
these stories, viewing them as a quest for freedom paralleling one's own journey 
of freedom by serving God.  According to Rabbi Wolpe, senior rabbi at Los 
Angeles' Sinai Temple. "Archaeology and biblical history have demonstrated that 
the Bible is not intended to be taken as literal history. It is a spiritual 
history, and that is the way modern Jews ought to relate to the biblical text." 
(Kristen E. Holmes, "Jews grapple with skepticism about Exodus story" 
Philadelphia Inquirer03/30/2002)]

   Perhaps the most important feature of the Exodus story relates to the 
establishment of the social and religious laws given by God for the Israelites 
to follow.  This includes the Ten Commandments, esteemed as the most important 
fundamental laws followed by Jews and Christians alike.

  Oral tradition holds that Moses wrote ALL five of the first books of the Old 
Testament—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy--this despite the 
fact that these books include a description of the author's (ie Moses') DEATH 
and BURIAL. However, one problem with attributed authorship to Moses, is that 
these books also give accounts of Moses' SUCCESSORS who led the Israelites into 
the Promised Land of Canaan, following his death.

 Over the centuries, devout Jewish scholars brilliantly applied themselves to 
reconciling how Moses could have written of events AFTER his death. Since God 
Himself had dictated these events to Moses, it was reasoned that Moses had 
written down BOTH the events of the past AND the events of the future as well!  
(Some Jewish Talmudic scholars disagreed with this view, arguing that at least 
some verses were written by Joshua. See Baba Bathra 14b-15a). Today, most Jews 
and Christians follow the TRADITION that Moses was the single author of the 
first five books of the Bible. For this reason, these five books are commonly 
referred to as the Books of Moses.

  Initially, after the Israelites entered the Promised Land, they were
organized around tribes.  According to biblical tradition, there were
thirteen tribes, with twelve tribes actually owning territory. The
thirteenth tribe was made up of the priestly group, who owned no property.
As there were no kings, "judges" acted as military leaders during local
battles with Canaanite groups, such as the Philistines. A judge could be
either male or female, but a priest had to be a male.  Usually priests had to
be from the thirteenth tribe, the tribe of Levi. Typically the position of
priest was inherited. Priests presided over religious ceremonies, which
included performing sacrifices.  In return for their services, they received
a portion of the sacrifice.

  Another special type of leader in the community was a prophet.  Moses
was of course, considered the greatest prophet within Judaism.  But anyone
could claim to be a prophet--unlike the position of priest, which was
inherited. The word in Hebrew for prophet is nabi, which means "called".
The Israeli prophets were men and women who were viewed upon as being
called by God to perform some special task.  Typically the message delivered
by the prophet was delivered in poetry, or a combination of poetry and prose.

The Rise of Kings

   During this period of the "Judges" which has been estimated to have
lasted roughly two hundred years, the people were spared the "corruptions"
common with ruling kings. (Indeed, in principle, their God Jehovah was
their King!) However with the increasing threat of the Philistines, the
people wanted a human king to unite around, and Saul was designated by the
prophet Samuel as the first king of Israel/Judah.  When Saul displeased God,
God chose David as his anointed one, or messiah. ("Messiah" means "anointed
one", as all kings were anointed with oils by a prophet to symbolize God's
approval of his rule.)

   During the times of King David, the dynasties of Egypt in the south were
in decline, and the Mesopotamians had not yet become a powerful country.
In this temporary power void, the two small kingdoms of Judah and Israel
consolidated their power against other Canaanite groups in the area, first
under King David (around 1000-961 B.C.E.), and later under his son Solomon
(around 961-922 B.C.E.).  During this time, the combined kingdom of Judah/Israel
became an impressive power in the region, culminating in the establishment
of Jerusalem as its capital, and the building of the Great Temple dedicated
to the worship of their one God, Jehovah.

God's Promise to King David

  God Himself is reported to have especially loved David.  Thus, during
this time He made the promise to David that He would set up a dynasty of
his descendants that would rule forever, even if they did what was "wrong"
in His eyes.

  This promise by God to David is often referred to as the Davidic
covenant--In it God states:

   "I shall chastise him with the rod of people and the lashes of humans if
   he does wrong, but my fidelity will not turn from him..
   Your house and your kingdom will be secure before you forever.  Your
   throne will be established forever." (2 Samuel 7:16)

Here the meaning of this last covenant appears as an UNCONDITIONAL promise:
That is, David's dynasty would rule the Kingdom forever, regardless of
their behavior or actions.

  This promise is repeated in a second rendition of the story that appears
in 1 Kings. Upon the completion of the building of the Temple in Jerusalem,
God is represented as visiting Solomon at the Temple and repeating the
promise He made to David.  But this time a condition is recorded whereby
the kings must follow God's commandments if the "throne of Israel" is
to pass down to them:

   "There will not be cut off from you a man before me sitting on the
   throne of Israel ONLY if your sons keep their way, to go before me as
   you went before me."
   (see 1 Kings 9:5-9)

   This second passage might seem at first to conflict with the earlier
unconditional promise.  However the key passage above is throne of "ISRAEL"
(at which time this was separate from the region of JUDAH!). That is,
God had earlier promised that the Kingdom would always be ruled by a
descendant of David, but He did NOT define how large this kingdom would be.
Therefore, this second passage was interpreted by the Jews during this time
to mean that a descendant of David would always rule over the Kingdom,
although if they did evil in the sight of God, they could lose the
northern kingdom of Israel (Richard Elliot Friedman, WHO WROTE THE BIBLE).
(As we shall see, the northern kingdom of Israel did fall to the Assyrians).

Northern Israel and Southern Judea

  During the time of David, the twelve tribes were strongly aligned into two
groups: the ten tribes of Israel in the north, and the two tribes of Judah
(and Benjamin) in the south.  David's son, Solomon likewise kept the twelve
tribes united during his reign.  However, as Solomon was anxious to imitate
the luxury and opulence of other Oriental kings--he established a harem of
700 wives and 300 concubines, and built expensive palaces, stables for 4000
horses--not to mention constructed the great Temple in Jerusalem.  Since
Palestine did not possess the natural resources for these construction projects,
most of these materials had to be imported.  Gold, silver, bronze, and cedar
were imported in such large quantities, that Solomon had to impose heavy taxes
to pay for them.  Even this was not enough, so Solomon also drafted 30,000
hebrews each month to work in the mines and forests of King Hiram of Tyre,
to pay him back for these building materials.

  Dissatisfaction with Solomon's policies and intertribal rivalry had become
so great, that upon his death, the kingdom split into two.  Soloman's son,
Rehoboam only retained control over the southern kingdom--called Judah.
God is reported to have visited the new king of Israel (who was not a
descendant of King David). God explained how because of Soloman's sins, He
was temporarily taking the kingdom of Israel away from the line of David.
Here the prophet Ahijah is speaking for God:

  "I shall take the kingdom from his son's hand and give it to you--the ten
  tribes.  But I shall give one tribe to his son so that there may be a holding
  for my servant David always before me in Jerusalem, the city that I have
  chosen for myself to set my name there." (1 Kings 11:35-36).

  He then continues:

  "I shall give Israel to you.  And I shall humble David' seed on account
of this, BUT NOT FOR ALL TIME." (1 Kings 11:38-39, emphasis mine.)

  This theme is repeated throughout the books of 1 and 2 Kings, whereby the
author reports how other descendants of David did evil in God's eyes,
but how God allowed them to keep their kingdom for David's sake, and to
continue David's lineage:

  "Abijam .. went in all his father's crimes that he had done before him,
  and his heart was not whole with Yahweh his God as the heart of David had
  his father was.  But for David's sake, Yahweh his God gave him a holding
  in Jerusalem to establish his son after him and to establish Jerusalem
  (1 Kings 15:3-4)

  And on King Jehoram, David's great-great-great-great-grandson:

  "..he did bad in the eyes of Yahweh, but Yahweh was not willing to
  destroy Judah for the sake of David his servant, as he had promised to
  give a holding to him and to his son always" (2 Kings 8:18-19)

  After the kingdom of Israel, and later the kingdom of Judah, were
overrun by their more powerful neighbors, the people would refer to the
Davidic covenant as an inspired source of hope to help them in their
predicament.-- For it was commonly believed that if the people returned
to God's commandments, then God would RESTORE the Davidic line of kings,
and Judah/Israel would be rebuilt on a far grander scale, with Jerusalem
as its eternal city of peace and prosperity. (Ibid)

  During these times, the people also took comfort in the fact that the
prophet Moses appeared to have prophesized those events which they were
currently experiencing.--He predicted that the people would forsake God's
laws, which would bring down the fury of God's wrath upon them and their
children.  He predicted that the land would be invaded, devastated, and
settled by foreigners--and that the Israelites would be deported and that
large numbers would be put to death.  Only when the Israelites repented
would God renew the covenants he had made with them.  At that time, God
would re-establish Israel as a great and prosperous nation.

  Moses knew that there would be both true and false prophets coming after
him who would lead the children of Israel.  He therefore suggested how the
people could judge whether a prophet was divinely inspired by this test:

  "When the word spoken by the prophet in the name of the Lord is not
  fulfilled and does not come true, it is not a word spoken by the Lord"
 (Deut 18:22).

   That is, the people should look to the accuracy of the prophet's predictions
itself to test whether it was of divine nature or not.

Destruction of the Northern Kingdom of Israel in 722 B.C.E. by the Assyrians--
The Southern Kingdom of Judah Survives for another 150 Years.

The kingdom of Israel in the NORTH was conquered by the Assyrians in 722 B.C.E.
The Israelites were deported, and through assimilation, were never heard
from again.  They are still referred to as the lost tribes of Israel,
as they never resurfaced as Jews throughout the annals of history.

  The southern kingdom of Judah was able to hold off against the Assyrians,
although as a compromise they entered into a vassal state relationship with
the mightier Assyrians. When the Babylonians rose as the great power in
the region, the kingdom of Judah fell under their dominion.  The Jews
rebelled against their overlords (partly to purify their country from
foreign influences including idol worship).  As punishment, in 586 B.C.E.,
the Babylonians under King Nebuchadnezzar sent a powerful army, which
devastated Judah, destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem, and deported the
Hebrew upper class and priests into Babylonia.

  Thus, roughly one hundred fifty years after the fall of the northern
kingdom of Israel to the Assyrians, the southern kingdom of Judah was
ALSO conquered, this time by the Babylonians.

Legacy of the Jewish Old Testament Prophets.

  During the centuries of Assyrian and then Babylonian occupation, religious
Jews studied their ancient texts carefully for prophecies regarding their
predicament.  Moses had generally predicted a period of punishment, but then
promised a future era characterized by peace and prosperity.

  Imbedded within the Ten Commandments itself is a verse that was no doubt
seen by religious Jews as a sign as to when they would be delivered from
outside rule.  In it, God states:

  " I punish the children for the sins of the fathers to the third
   and fourth generations of those who hate me.  But I keep faith for a
   thousand generations with those who love me and keep my commandments."
   (Exodus 20:5)

   A literal interpretation of this verse would mean that Divine punishment
for the Jew's "wickedness" would not last much more than one hundred years,
while God's reward for good behavior would initiate a new period of greatness
lasting a thousand generations.  At the time, this prophecy had worked well
in explaining how the Davidic kingdom had lasted roughly ONE THOUSAND years,
even through the reigns of "wicked" Davidic kings.

   Religious Jews found hope from Moses' last prediction-- that the people of
Israel would return to God, at which time a new Kingdom on earth would be
established for the virtuous.  As we shall see, although the Jews were freed
from their Babylonian Exile by the Persians, and allowed to return to Palestine
to freely worship and rebuild the Temple--still the promised new era did not
arrive.

   Instead, the Jews experienced another series of political defeats--first
under the Greeks (with a few hundred year respite due to the heroic efforts
of the Maccabbees), and later by the Roman Empire--which later destroyed
Jewish Palestine in the wars of 70 C.E. and 132 C.E. After their defeat in 132
C.E., the Jews were forced out of Palestine by the Romans.  They did not
regain control over the area until the modern founding of Israel in 1947!

    As to WHY Moses' last prophecy has not come true in the roughly 3400 years
since Moses lived--this is not agreed upon by all groups.  Religious Jews
(and some Christian millennium groups) believe that this last prophecy
will be fulfilled in some date in the FUTURE!  Other Christian groups
believe that the Jews forfeited their rights toward obtaining this future
kingdom when they rejected Jesus Christ as their savior.

   Others (both religious liberals and agnostics) believe that Moses was
mistaken.  Pressed hard to explain why the PREVIOUS prophecies were so
accurate, the latter group will argue that since most scholars agree
that the Old Testament books were written down in their FINAL FORM--
AFTER the Babylonian exile--that it would have been easy for some later
author to have inserted these prophecies looking backwards in time.
As proof, they point out that the Old Testament prophets only accurately
forecasted events that took place within a few hundred years of the prophecy--
Therefore they argue that these texts were probably really written "AFTER"
the event(s) had happened--instead of before. (Of course, none of these
groups can absolutely PROVE their position to the satisfaction of the
others.)

  Moses' prophecies set down the foundation for Judaism.  Other Old
Testament prophets would follow in Moses' footsteps--

Old Testament Prophets--During the Times of the Assyrians/Babylonians.

Prophetic Period

  The Prophetic period is usually seen as beginning with the prophet Elijah.
(869-850 B.C.), who preached a warning of God's punishment during the
reign of the wicked king Ahab in the northern kingdom of Israel.  The
popular risings encouraged by Elijah and his successor Elisha, led to the
deposal of King Ahab, and his replacement by the military leader Jehu.
Jehu was then anointed by Elisha as the new king of Israel.  Interesting,
the traditions of the people associated the prophets Elijah and Elisha
as the divine instigators of God's will and power, instead of King Jehu.

Classic Period  (850-300 B.C.)

  During this period the basic message of the prophets were warnings of
"doom". That is, the children of Israel had broken God's covenants and laws
and were soon to experience God's divine punishment. The prophets of Amos
and Hosea lived shortly before the NORTHERN kingdom of Israel was conquered
by the Assyrians in 722 B.C.E. The prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Micah lived
in the SOUTHERN kingdom of Judah, and forecasted its later capture by the
Babylonians. All of the prophets forecasted these terrible events-- which
were attributed as divine punishment for Israel's disobedience to God's laws.

  Often, the classical prophets would dramatize their message with visual
attention-getting antics that were intended to symbolize their message:
The prophet Isaiah walked around the Jerusalem for three years naked
and barefoot as a "sign and portent" against the king for making a political
alliance with Egypt(Isaiah 20). Jeremiah wore a yoke around his neck to
symbolize Israel's future submission to the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar
(see Jeremiah 27) (Richard A. Horsley and John S. Hanson, BANDITS, PROPHETS,
AND MESSIAHS--POPULAR MOVEMENTS IN THE TIME OF JESUS, Harper & Row, 1985
P 139)

  At times, the prophets would accompany their portents of judgment
with pleas to improve social-economic justice for the people. By the times
of Amos and Hosea and Micah, the prophets were also criticizing the wealthy
Jewish aristocracy and priesthood for their exploitation of the people. It
is not surprising that the Jewish aristocracy reacted against these prophets,
by attempting to suppress and persecute them.

  There appears to have been many active prophets during these times, although
only a SMALL number of these were later deemed to have been truly "called"
from God. According to 1 Kings 22:6, there were 400 "prophets" who FALSELY
prophesized victory for the wicked Judean King Ahab; Also, Jeremiah 28:1-4
refers to how Hananiah, son of Azzur falsely prophesized the restoration of
monarchy and Temple. (Ibid, p 145). Thus, it would appear that the MAJORITY
of all "prophets" were forecasting FAVORABLE events for the royal court--
while only a MINORITY of prophets were of the doom and gloom variety which
made it to the Old Testament. (Ibid)

  The "real" prophets though, in the eyes of the people, were the ones who
had officially communicated God's dissatisfaction with the hebrews and had
accurately predicted the future.

  According to many Christians, these ancient Jewish prophecies were not
mere predictions of local Jewish events--but would presage the coming of
Jesus Christ himself!

Did the Old Testament Prophets Predict Jesus?

   Some Jewish prophecies dating from the time of the Assyrian and Babylon
threat, DO refer to a messiah-type  figure.  The two most famous
passages are to be found in the book of Isaiah:

  *"The people who walked in darkness have seen a great light… For to
  us a child is born, to us a son is given; and the government will be upon
  his shoulder, and his name will be called 'Wonderful Counselor, Mighty
  God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.' Of the increase in his
  government and of peace there will be no end, upon the throne of David,
  and over his kingdom, to establish it, and to uphold it with justice and
  with righteousness from this time forth and for evermore.  The zeal of the
  Lord of hosts will do this." (Isaiah 9:2,6-7)

and

  *"There shall come forth a shoot from the stump of Jesse, and a branch
  shall grow out of his roots.  And the Spirit of the Lord shall rest upon
  him, the spirit of wisdom and understanding, the spirit of counsel and
  might, the spirit of knowledge and the fear of the Lord.  And his
  delight shall be the fear of the Lord. (Isaiah 11:1-3)

  However, the author of Isaiah almost certainly interpreted these passages
LITERALLY, according to current events of his lifetime. It is known
that during this time (around 715 B.C.E.), the young "good" king Hezekiah had
succeeded to the throne from his "wicked" father--King Ahaz.  There were
high hopes that the young King Hezekiah would reform the country of its
pagan influences and turn the country back to the "pure" worship of Jehovah.
Further evidence for this view, can be seen in the phrase 'Wonderful
Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace'-- which
can also be translated as 'Wonderful Counselor, Mighty Warrior, Father for
a Long Time, Prince of Well-Being.'  Likewise the descriptions stating
that this "branch" from the "stump of Jesse" shall "delight" in the "fear of
the Lord" could literally be interpreted as a reference to a good, religious
(but political) king on earth.

  Although it is true these passages could be interpreted to represent a
purely historical king, it is a fact that both Jews and Christians would
later interpret these verses to SYMBOLIZE the hope and expectation of a
FUTURE messiah. As for the NATURE of this messiah-figure-- Jews and Christians
(then and now) do NOT agree! Jews have traditionally conceived of the messiah
as a political king ON EARTH!

  The Hebrew word messiah means literally "anointed one", and refers
to the ancient Jewish practice of anointing kings, priests, and prophets
to symbolize their finding favor in God's eyes, and being set aside for
some special task(s).  King David was anointed as the messiah, as were
his descendant kings.

   Christians believe THE messiah refers NOT to a political king, but to a
SPIRITUAL, divine being, as personified by Jesus Christ! The synoptic gospel
writers generally interpreted Jesus' life to be in fulfillment of these
ancient Jewish prophecies.

   However, some modern Christians, do NOT believe these passages to be
vital towards predicting the life of Jesus. That is, belief in them is not
seen as a requirement towards a belief in Jesus as Christ. For example,
according to James M. Efird, Associate Professor of Biblical Languages and
Interpretation at Duke Divinity School, these passages [by Isaiah] are
"obviously a religious-political description of the king in those times, not
the prediction of someone to come hundreds of years later." (James M. Efird,
HOW TO INTERPRET THE BIBLE, John Knox Press 1984 p 56)

  As to why even the New Testament writers generally interpreted Jesus'
life as the fulfillment of the old Jewish prophecies, James Efird responds
that they, for the most part, found fulfillment on an "'essential' level,
not at a literal or superficial level". He concludes, "Care must be taken
always to understand how the New Testament writers used the Scriptures and
not force modern ideas upon them which were not intended." (Ibid, p 58) Of
course, many Christians (especially conservative Christians) would strongly
disagree with Professor Efird.

  In addition to these passages in Isaiah, I have shown below other important
Old Testament prophecies of the messiah, which have traditionally been used by
many Christians, to prove that Jesus' coming was predicted. As mentioned above,
both Jews and (various) Christians have interpreted these verses very
differently. Of course, the important key in distinguishing whether the
prophecy relates to a "Jewish" or a "Christian" messiah--is to determine if
these passages describe a POLITICAL figure--or instead a DIVINE-like being:

* "There shall come forth a star out of Jacob, and a scepter shall rise out
of Israel, and shall smite through the corners of Moab, and break down all
the sons of tumult.  And Edom shall be a possession." (Numbers 24:17-8)
(Some scholars believe this reference was to King David himself who
had subjugated Moab--see 2 Samuel 8:2. Other verses cited below are clearly
references to those coming AFTER David).

 * "Behold, the days are coming, says the Lord, when I will raise up for
David a righteous Branch, and he shall reign as king and deal wisely, and
shall execute justice and righteousness in the land. In his days Judah
will be saved, and Israel will dwell securely.  And this is the name by
which he will be called: 'The LORD is our righteousness.'" (Jeremiah 23:5-6)

* "I will save my flock, they shall no longer be a prey; and I will judge
between sheep and sheep. and I will set up over them one shepherd, my
servant David, and he shall feed them: he shall feed them and be their
shepherd. And I, the LORD, will be their God, and my servant David shall
be prince among them; I, the LORD, have spoken."(Ezekiel 34:23-4)

 * "But you, O Bethlehem Ephrathah, who are little to be among the clans
of Judah, from you shall come forth for me one who is to be ruler of
Israel, whose origin is from of old, from ancient days. And he shall stand
and feed his flock in the strength of the LORD, in the majesty of the
name of the LORD his God. and they shall swell secure, for now he shall
be great to the ends of the earth."  (Micah 5:2-4)

(It is from the above reference, that Christians expected the Messiah to be
born in Bethlehem)

 * "In that day I will raise up the booth of David that is fallen and repair
its breaches, and raise up its ruins, and rebuild it as in the days of old."
(Amos 9:11)

 *"..behold, I will bring my servant the Branch."(Zechariah 3:8)

   In analyzing the above passages, we can see justification for BOTH
viewpoints--That is these passages can be seen LITERALLY as referring
to the Jewish model of the messiah--and again the case can be made that
SYMBOLICALLY there are strong similarities between the messiah-figure
and the divine personage of Jesus Christ.

The "SUFFERING SERVANT"

  Many Christians also believe that the image of the "Suffering Servant"
described in Isaiah was a prediction of Jesus' future suffering brought
about by his ultimate rejection and death on the cross.

  Biblical scholars believe that the book of Isaiah was written by, at
least, three different authors. The chapters in Isaiah, that dwell on the
theme of the "Suffering Servant" (Chapters 40-55), were written during the
Babylon Captivity. Against this background, a literal reading of these
chapters would indicate that the author believed that the undeserved suffering
of the people of Israel--God's Chosen People--symbolized the "Suffering
Servant" of God. The religious theme of the author revolves around how the
suffering of the innocent can redeem the past sins of others.  For example:

  "Remember these things, O Jacob and Israel, for you are my servant;
   I formed you, you are my servant;
   O Israel, you will not be forgotten by me.
   I have swept away your transgressions like a cloud, and your sins like mist;
   return to me, for I have redeemed you." (Isaiah 44:21-22)

  Therefore once again, it is only in the figurative or SYMBOLIC sense, that
these passages can be seen to predict the coming of the divine Jesus.
(According to the Jewish tradition that followed the Talmud of Babylon, the
identity of the "servant" was Moses.  According to the Talmud of Jerusalem,
he was Rabbi Akiba.)

70 Years of Babylonian Captivity

  It was during their years in captivity, that the people of Judah began
to be known as "Juhudi", or "Jews" for short. Prior to the Babylonian
Captivity, the worship of the hebrews had centered around the Temple and
the ceremonies of the priests.  With the Temple destroyed, Jews in Babylon
asked "How shall we sing the Lord's song in a foreign land?" (Psalm 137)
Whereas previously Jehovah had been worshiped as the God of the nation of
Israel, the scattered hebrews now acknowledged that His spirit dwelled in
every country on earth, even in Babylon.

  Over time, Jews met in private houses to worship, which evolved into
synagogues. The idea developed that God could be worshipped anywhere, wherever
the faithful had gathered in one place.( This was in addition to worship in
association with the Temple, or the Ark of the Covenant.)

  It was also during their captivity, that some scholars believe that the
hebrews came into contact with Babylonian mythology. For example, some believe
they see strong similarities between the views of the ancient hebrews and
Babylonians on the creation of the universe, as given in Genesis. (This
subject is taken up in detail in Section IV, Chapter 1.)

Persia Frees the Hebrew Exiles in Babylonia

  After Nebuchadnezzar died in 562 B.C.E., the Babylonian empire fell into
decline.  A new power rose in the east-- Persia.  Babylon itself was captured
by the Persians in 539 B.C.E.

  The Persian victory over the Babylonian empire brought freedom to the
Hebrew exiles living there.  The Persians must have seen similarities with
the monotheism of the Jews views and their own Zorastrian religious views.--
For according to the Zorastrianisms, there is a supreme God-- Ahura, who is
the head of the forces of good, ready to do battle against a powerful devil
and his legions of evil.

   This contact between the Jews and the Persians was a friendly one.  Indeed,
the Persians even CONTRIBUTED money to the Jewish exiles to help rebuild their
destroyed Temple in Jerusalem. As is often true whenever two cultures
come into contact, Judaism was undoubtedly influenced by its encounter with
the Persians-- Many scholars believe that the concept of a powerful devil,
and resurrection of the dead does not appear in Jewish writings until
AFTER the Babylonian Exile. (See Section VII, Chapter 1)

The Legacy of the Old Testament Prophets

   The prophecies of the Old Testament prophets predicting the Babylonian
conquest are impressive!  Obediah predicted the subsequent fall of Babylon,
and the return of the Jewish exiles to their homeland. Jeremiah correctly
predicted the exact length of time when the hebrews would be exiled in
Babylonia (ie seventy years), before being freed by the Persians to return
home. This group of prophets predicted that Jerusalem and its famous
Temple would be rebuilt, (which indeed happened!).

   However the prophets ALSO predicted that the ancient Covenant with God
would be re-established, followed closely by the appearance of a King from
the House of David--a messiah who would inaugurate the promised new Kingdom
of Israel. This event definitely did NOT take place during a period close
to their lifetimes (ie around 538-300 B.C.)

  And there is no question that these prophets did envisioned these
events as taking place close to their own time.  The prophet Ezekiel
quotes Jehovah as declaring of His prophecies: "No word of mine shall be
delayed." (Ezekiel 12:28)

   Christians believe that the appearance of Jesus, some 300-500 years
later DID fulfill these prophecies, although it inaugurated a new kingdom
in HEAVEN, instead of a new Kingdom of Israel on EARTH! (This subject is
taken up in later chapters)

   To the religious Jews, the destruction of the Temple by the Babylonians
and the period of Jewish exile, marked the end of the Age of the Prophets.
From this time forward, Jewish scholars would study the texts and prophecies
of the Old Testament texts for guidance on God's will. (Many scholars believe
that the books of the Old Testament were written down in the final books
as we know them today, around this period AFTER the Babylonian Exile.)
Instead of prophets, Jews would now look to the priests of the rebuilt
Temple, the rabbis of their local synagogues, and the writings of the
scribes for political and religious leadership.

  But even though the people returned back to the worship of God and had
rebuilt the Temple upon their return from Exile, still the hoped for new
Kingdom on earth did not materialize. Indeed, instead of conditions improving
during the next centuries, they became worse.  Previous generations' wars
and neglect of the land during the exile had driven the Jews into even
harder economic hardship.

  During the next two hundred years, Israel/Judah existed in a vassal state
relationship under the Persians. Next they would become part of the GREEK
Empire, following Alexander the Great's great victory over the Persian Empire
in 333 B.C.E.