SECTION I
CHAPTER 8  The First and Second Jewish Revolutionary Wars with Rome
           (66 C.E. AND 132 C.E.)


The Jewish Revolt of 66-70 C.E..

    We know that it was the Pauline version of Christianity that would, in
the end, be victorious over the pro-Jewish versions of Christianity. Yet, as
we have seen, a close reading of both Paul's letters and the book of Acts
along with early Christian writings on the subject) will show that it was
unquestionably the Jerusalem Church that FIRST held the leadership role
over all Christian Churches throughout the ancient world.

  There was therefore a dramatic transformation in Christianity from the
Jewish Christian view of Jesus, to the one as presented by the Gentiles
(with Paul as one its main leaders).

   Today most Christians are not even aware that James, the brother of
Jesus was the head of the first Christian community--and the tradition of
the Jewish Christians has been (with the exceptions mentioned) all but lost
over the centuries.

  How the authority of the Jewish Christian church vanished (leaving behind
some fragmented Jewish Christian groups such as the Ebionites)--and was
replaced by GENTILE Christians can probably be BEST explained by a
cataclysmic event--that would profoundly affect BOTH Christianity AND
Judaism--

  There was of course such an event-- the Roman-Jewish war of 66-70 C.E.,
followed again by another Jewish revolt against the Romans in 132-5 C.E..


Conditions Leading UP to the Jewish Revolt of 66 C.E.

   In the first centuries C.E., the Romans considered the Jews to be one of
their most troublesome and rebellious subjects.  Repeatedly conservative
wings within the Roman Empire stressed the importance of worshiping the
"correct" pantheon of Gods, to thus assure Rome's glory and power over
its enemies.  This took the effect of setting up the cult of the Roman
emperor gods--and demanding all conquered subjects to worship these as
a test of loyalty.  For most conquered groups, being polytheistic, this
was a workable COMPROMISE-- because they were allowed to keep their old
set of local gods, and could thus merely ADD the new ones Rome wished
them to worship.

   But to the Jews who worshiped ONE God, there could be NO compromise!--
(for then by definition, there would then be MORE than one God.) Because
Jewish tradition interpreted their current series of defeats as a punishment
from God for not being loyal enough, this caused many Jews to redouble their
revolutionary activities against Rome. Thus the crackdown by Romans brought
about increased feelings of religiosity and resistance on the part of the
Jews.  The historian Josephus describes some historical scenes which
portray how strongly religious Jews felt about keeping their religion "pure" 
from pagan influences.

Examples of Jewish Martyrdom Against the Romans

   According to Josephus, the Roman emperor Tiberius sent Pontius Pilate
images of Caesar to be displayed within the city of Jerusalem.  This created 
an "angry city mob" because Jewish laws forbade the display of any image 
within the city (considering it an idolatrous display).

  Pilate at first refused, but a large group of Jews camped around his
house for five days and nights. The next day, Pilate signaled his armed
soldiers to surround the Jews-- He then told the Jews that they would be
cut down by the soldiers unless they accepted the images of Caesar, whereupon 
he nodded and the soldiers drew their swords.  The religious Jews thereupon 
"all fell to the ground, extended their necks, and proclaimed that they were 
ready to be killed rather than transgress the law. Astonished by the intensity 
of their religious fervor, Pilate ordered the immediate removal of the 
standards from Jerusalem." (see J.W. 2.169-74)

  Over time, it was characteristic of Pontius Pilate to act with force
against the protests by the Jews:

  "When Pilate took funds from the treasury of the Temple to pay for the
construction of an aqueduct into Jerusalem, thousands of Jews protested
at his tribunal.  Pilate had previously arranged for soldiers to disguise
themselves in civilian clothes and surround the protesters.  When Pilate
gave the signal, the soldiers beat the hecklers with clubs, killing many
of them."  (see J.W. 2.176-77; ANT. 18.60-62)

  As we shall see in a later section, this 'tough' description of Pilate
is at odds with the meek Pilate portrayed in the gospels who, though
believing Jesus innocent, is afraid to free Jesus directly, and allows
a Jewish mob to coerce him into crucifying Jesus. Philo wrote that Pilate
was a man of "inflexible, stubborn, and cruel disposition", whose
administration was characterized by his "venality, thefts, assaults,
abusive behavior, and his frequent murders of untried prisoners."
(Philo C.E. GAIUM 38.302. see discussion in Mary Smallwood's JEWS UNDER
ROMAN RULE pp 144-80) The Roman historian Tacitus also refers to the
mismanagement of Judea under Roman governors (which would include Pilate).

  During this time, there were numerous incidents which increased the tensions 
between the religious Jews and their Roman rulers--eventually leading up to 
the all-out Jewish revolt of 66 C.E..  There was an upsurge in guerrilla 
activity.  Jewish Zealots killed pro-Roman compatriots. A Roman official was 
mugged.  A Roman soldier who had burnt a copy of the scriptures had to be 
executed to satisfy the violent furious Jewish mobs.  A national disaster 
occurred, when during a Passover festival, twenty thousand people were 
crushed to death inside the Temple, in trying to stampede out for fear of 
the Roman soldiers.

   Different groups of Jewish resistance fighters had emerged in opposition
to the Roman occupation.  Josephus refers to their ideals as the "Fourth
Philosophy".  The basic beliefs of this group were:

   * To acquiesce in paying taxes to Rome, amounted to nothing less than
slavery.
   * God had designated the Jews as his Chosen People. In his first
Commandment, He ordered that the Jews should "have no other gods besides
me."  Passive submission to foreign nations which worshipped pagan gods, was
therefore a violation of God's commandments.
   *  God "would eagerly join (them) in promoting the success of their plans,
especially if they did not shrink from the slaughter that might come upon
them" (ANT. 18.5).
   * Regardless of the outcome, God would reward pious Jews for their efforts:
 If God divinely intervened, then they would be a part of the new Kingdom of
 God.  If they were defeated or tortured before the final fulfillment of the
Kingdom, their martyrdom would ensure them great rewards on a new earthly
kingdom after death.

  In 64 C.E., the Roman emperor Nero blamed the Great Fire in Rome on all the 
messianic groups--Jewish and gentile alike.  Large groups were rounded up and 
publicly killed in barbaric cruel spectacles (such as feeding them to the 
lions in the Roman coliseum). It was felt that a Roman clampdown on Palestine 
itself would be next. To the religious Jews, the Divine Day of God's Wrath 
could not be far off.

  In addition, during this time, the tribute owed Rome was short. Knowing of 
Rome's reputation to burn and loot cities that did not pay their full tribute, 
the Jewish political leaders pushed for greater collections of taxes from the 
common people. Already hostile from the large taxes collected (some historians 
have estimated that the peasant taxes paid were as high as 40%), the population 
was not willing to "render unto Caesar..". A revolt was instigated by the 
common people and lower priests against the Romans--and their representatives 
the Jewish Sadduccees (upper priestly aristocracy.)


Shows of Great Religiosity by the Jews During the Times of Jesus--
Reports of Miraculous Portents Just Prior to the Revolt of 66 C.E..

  Before the Jewish Revolt of 66 C.E., there were several reports in Palestine
of miraculous signs, which the people interpreted as evidence that God was
with them. The Jewish historian Josephus records some of these as followings.
During a festival there was 

  "such a bright light around the altar and the sanctuary that it seemed 
   as bright as day.  This lasted for half an hour...At the same feast, 
   a cow brought for sacrifice gave birth to a lamb in the middle of the 
   temple precincts; and the eastern door of the inner temple court--it 
   was made of brass and so massive that at evening twenty men could barely 
   close it--this door was seen opening all by itself at the sixth hour of 
   the night...Again, this seemed to the uninitiated a most glorious omen, 
   because, as they understood it, God had opened for them the door of 
   prosperity...(J.W. 6.290-95)

  And people were reporting apocalyptic visions of heavenly armies lining
up for the imminent battle.  Once again, as reported by Josephus:

  "What is about to be told would seem to be an invention, I suppose, were it
  not for the fact that it was reported by those who saw it and that the
  events which took place afterwards matched the omens.  Before the sun
  went down, chariots were seen high in the air around the country and
  armed battalions rushing through the clouds and encircling the cities."
  (J.W. 6.297-99; see also Tacitus, HISTORY 6.13)

  There was numerous prophetic activity around Jerusalem in the years
leading up to the Jewish Revolt of 66 C.E. Josephus tells the
tale of a crackpot doom and gloom prophet:

  Four years before the war, when the city was enjoying great peace and
prosperity, a certain Jesus [a common name], son of Hananiah, and a simple
peasant from the lower classes, came to the festival at which all Jews
traditionally make booths to God.  Standing in the temple, he suddenly
began to cry out, "a voice from the east, a voice from the west, a voice
from the four winds; a voice against Jerusalem and the temple, a voice
against bridegrooms and brides, a voice against the whole people."  He
went roving through all the byways with this dirge day and night.  Some of
the gentry, irritated hy his ominous words, seized the man and beat him
severely.  But without a word in his own defense, even to those who
struck him, he incessantly repeated his cry as before.  Thus the authorities,
thinking his agitation had a supernatural cause, which indeed it did, took
him to the Roman governor.  There, despite being lashed to the bone he did
not  plea for mercy or shed a single tear, but, as best he could, mourned
with each blow, 'woe to Jerusalem." And when Albinus, the governor,
questioned him as to who he was and where he came from, and why he cried
out like this, he said nothing at all, but only continued to repeat his
cry of woe until Albinus, thinking him a madman released him.  During the
period before the war, he approached no citizen, nor was he seen
conversing; he simply continued his daily lament, 'woe to Jerusalem', just
as if he were practicing a traditional prayer.  He did not curse any of
those who daily struck him, nor did he thank those who gave him food; but
to everyone he gave the single reply, the same gloomy omen... It was
only when he saw his forebodings fulfilled with the beginning of the siege
that he was made to cease.  For as he was going around the walls, crying
out with a piercing voice, "again, woe to the city and to the people and
to the temple", he added a final word, "and woe also to me".  At that
point, a stone from one of the missile engines was let loose; it struck
and killed him instantly.  Thus indeed he was uttering those laments to
the very end. (J.W.  6.300-9)

  The lower priests heavily participated in the revolution against Rome
in 66 C.E., by refusing to offer the daily sacrifices in the Temple for the
well-being of the Emperor and to the Roman people. (see J.W. 2.409-10)
According to Josephus again, "Hostility and violent factionalism flared
between high priests on one side, and the priests and leaders of the
Jerusalem masses on the other". (ANT.20.180)

 Jewish revolutionaries moved in to help the priests hold the Temple off 
from the groups of the Sadducean aristocratic rulers. According to Josephus, 
one of their first acts was to burn the records of the money-lenders, to 
encourage the common people to join in with them against the wealthy classes.  
This move, heavily symbolic of Jesus' own purging of the Temple (not to mention 
Jesus' known sympathies with the poor against the rich), was most likely met 
with approval by the Jewish Christians in Jerusalem.

  After the outbreak of the war, numerous prophets went about promising the
people, especially in Jerusalem itself, that God's intervention to help
the Jews was imminent.  According to Josephus, during the final siege while 
Rome was overrunning the city, a "certain false prophet" proclaimed that God 
had decreed the people should congregate in the Temple to receive the "signs 
of their deliverance". A group of "about 6000" men, women, and children 
obeyed the order and took refuge on the last remaining colonnade of the outer 
court of the Temple.  The Roman soldiers, torched the colonnade in their fury, 
and all of them were killed." (see J.W. 6.283-85)
                     

The Transition of Power from the Jerusalem Church to the Church at Rome

   According to the Church fathers Eusebius and later Epiphanius, the
Christian community in Jerusalem did NOT perished during the Jewish Revolt
of 66-70 C.E.. Under the leadership of Simeon, a first cousin of Jesus, they had
been warned by an oracle and had escaped to Pella, Syria before Jerusalem
had been destroyed. According to this tradition, these Christians later moved
back to Jerusalem and founded a new Church there in the ruins of Jerusalem.
Simeon reportedly suffered martyrdom during the reign of the Emperor Trajan.
Thirty bishops "of the circumcision" were elected after this, but none of them
were related to Jesus.  After this point in time, there is silence--and the
Judaic Christian community literally vanished from history.

  Eusebius wrote on these events some two hundred years after they had
occurred(in the early fourth century C.E.). Therefore Eusebius was relying on
oral traditions that were over roughly TWO HUNDRED years--which may or may
not have been representative of what happened (for example maybe a FEW
of the Jewish Christians escaped, with most of the leaders killed, etc).
For reasons we shall examine next, it appears PROBABLE that the majority of 
the original Jewish Christian community had instead been wiped out, and that 
later a NEW Gentile community returned to what was Jerusalem, to establish a 
new Christian church.

   First, as shown earlier by references to Paul's letters and early
historians, including Josephus, the Christian leadership was headquartered
in Jerusalem prior to the Jewish Revolt of 66-71 C.E.. Jesus' brother,
James, was the leader of the Christian church in Jerusalem.  Most of
the other apostles also were in Jerusalem.  This group appears to have
lived within Jewish laws and traditions, with James himself worshiping
openly in the Temple. If the church did indeed "move" to Pella, it is
strange that the LEADERSHIP role of the Church did not transfer with it.
We know, though that this did not happen.

  Instead, Christian tradition now placed the leadership of Christianity at
Rome. And there was  NO reference to Jesus' relatives EVER belonging to
Christianity (the gospel of Mark even states Jesus' relatives thought Jesus 
was mad). According to the tradition in Rome (which is described ONLY in the 
gospel of Matthew 16:18),  Jesus declared that Peter was the "rock" on which 
he would "build his church".  However, NOWHERE in the New Testament does it 
state WHERE Peter went, after departing from Jerusalem in Acts.

  According to a second century C.E. tradition, Peter had moved to Rome in later
life and had established a Church there. This tradition gave Rome a claim to
be the leading center of Christianity. Peter was proclaimed the first Bishop
of Rome, or Pope. (There is of course no documental evidence for him being bishop,
although there is an early tradition that Peter's grave is in Rome. See Section
V, Chapter 6)

  The importance of these verses cannot be overestimated: For it is from this 
tradition of Peter being the first Pope, that the Catholic Church traces its 
authority to spiritually rule over Christendom.

   There is a second reason for believing that the Christian community built
on the old city of Jerusalem was NOT a continuation of the previous community--
The early Church father Eusebius describes a Gentile Christian
congregation there, as opposed to a Jewish Christians congregation. (Eusebius,
ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY, iii. V.2-3).  This would mean that the make-up of
the community was very different than what had earlier existed.

  At any rate, the doctrine of the Christians had by this time, unquestionably 
shifted from a pro-Jewish view (ie one that believed and upheld the Jewish 
laws and traditions) to a solid Pauline version of Christianity.

  Some scholars such as the late Professor Brandon (note the above analysis
is from Brandon) have theorized that the Jewish Christians therefore did NOT
escape Jerusalem during the final siege by the Romans, but were killed with
their fellow Jewish compatriots at the hands of the Roman armies.

  Historically, Christian scholars had taken this to mean that there was no
significant impact on the Jewish revolt on early Christians. Professor
Brandon and others have argued that instead--the OPPOSITE is true! That is,
the changes that occurred from the revolt were so traumatic and profound, that
Christianity found itself TRANSFORMED in the process of redefining its
theology.

   This event would also serve to explain how the omissions and discrepancies 
that exist between Paul's letters and the gospel writings-- are possibly best 
understood based on the historical timeframes in which they were written:  
That is, while Paul's letters were written BEFORE the Destruction of Jerusalem 
in 70 C.E., the ACTS OF THE APOSTLES and the gospels were both written AFTER the 
Destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E..

   Some scholars such as Professor Brandon have argued that AFTER the Jewish 
Revolt of 70 C.E., the Gentile churches were likely cut off from the authority 
of the Mother Church, which was probably destroyed along with the Temple 
during the siege of Jerusalem. In the process of re-evaluating their new 
predicament.  Paul's writings could thus have been remembered and read again 
for new direction.  To help interpret the catastrophic event in Jerusalem, 
four Gentile Christian communities would rewrite the existing accounts on the 
life and ministry of Jesus to theologically explain its significance and 
relevance from a pro-Gentile standpoint.  To attract new converts it was 
desirable (for reasons which we shall discuss in more detail) to downplay 
Jesus "Jewishness", and hence his brother's role in the leadership of the 
Christian church in Jerusalem.

Were the Jewish Christians involved in the Jewish Revolt of 66 C.E.?

  Although there is no direct writing left by the earliest Christians
who lived in Jerusalem before and at the time of the Jewish Revolt, there
are indications that they were probably sympathetic with the aspirations of
their Jewish compatriots, and possibly even took arms against the Romans during
the final siege of Jerusalem itself!  As only fragments of the traditions from
these earliest Christians have survived down to us (and these in second
hand form) we can assign only probabilities as to what level of involvement
truly existed by these Jerusalem Christians in the fight against Rome.

   The book of Acts, as we have seen earlier, is suspiciously silent on
the leadership of the Jerusalem church during the times before the destruction
of the city in 70 C.E..  There is no mention of James' blood relationship to
Jesus, of James' life (we know Josephus considered him to be a very devout and
pious man), nor of his martyrdom at the hands of the Sadducean high priest
some five years before the Revolt of 66 C.E..

  The book of Acts has another surprising omission in it, one that relates
to an event that had to have been very significant to Christians living and
worshipping in Jerusalem.  For in the year 37 C.E., after the Emperor Tiberius
was succeeded by the mad Caligula, the new emperor (who took the cult OF
worshipping the Roman emperors as God--ie HIMSELF,  VERY seriously) ordered
a colossal statue of himself in the form of Zeus, to be placed inside the
Jerusalem Temple for worship.

  Both the Jewish writers Philo and Josephus described the horror that
Jews felt on this impending crisis. In the winter of 39-40 C.E., a large
Roman battalion entered Jerusalem to carry out the order. Alarmed at the
anticipated fanatical Jewish resistance, he procrastinated in carrying
out the Emperor's orders. (It appears some of the Jewish leaders, including
Agrippa had warned that if there was war, it would be more difficult to
administer taxes and thus pay tribute to Rome.) Caligula was furious and
threatened to set up the statue himself. He also ordered Philo to commit
suicide. When Caligula was assassinated shortly afterwards in Rome, the 
historian Josephus relates that this was taken by the Jews to be divine 
intervention from God for their faithfulness to Him. (Josephus, ANTIQUITIES 
18:5)

  The book of Acts purports to be the history of the earliest Christians
after the death of Jesus. It reports that Christians were active in
Jerusalem, worshiping in the Temple, which they (along with their fellow
Jews) believed was the house of God. (see Acts 15:4). Interesting enough, the
book of Acts, also notes how a great number of Jewish priests "were obedient 
to the faith", (see Acts 6:7) meaning again that the Christians and Jews in 
Jerusalem generally appeared to be on pretty good terms. It would also seem, 
the threat of the "abomination" in the Temple and the order to worship Caesar 
as God, should have been as offensive to the Christians as much as the Jews. 
In addition, both groups shared a common reverence for the traditions and 
laws of Judaism, including the belief that the Temple was the house of Yahweh.

   The gospel of Acts is silent about all these scenes--the threat of
Caligula's "abomination" in the Temple, the reaction of the Jerusalem
Christians to the Jewish revolt, etc. Although James' leadership is
indirectly acknowledged in Acts, there is total silence about James'
past, his relationship to Jesus, his martyrdom, and the fact that a
nephew of Jesus was chosen to lead the Jerusalem Church after James' death.

  Professor Brandon has shown that an apocalyptic reference in Mark which
prophecies the destruction of the Temple "But when ye see the abomination
of desolation standing where he ought not (let him that readeth understand),
then let them that are in Judea flee unto the mountains..."-- interwoven 
with "And except the Lord had shortened the days, no flesh would have been 
saved: but for the elects' sake, whom he chose, he shortened the days." (Mark 
8:14-20)-- is probably from an older text used by Mark that refers to the 
Caligula affair in the Temple. (Note: The reason why this event could not 
refer to the LATER abomination in the Temple by the Romans in 70 C.E., is 
because there was no perceived intervention by God, as referred in the latter 
part of the passage . That is, there was no miracle that had "shortened the 
days" of the antagonist). Accordingly, as the Jerusalem church was at the 
height of its authority during the time of the Caligula affair, it is 
possible that some of Mark's source material came from this group of 
Christians living in Jerusalem.

  If this analysis is correct, it would mean there was an apocalyptic
tradition among the Christian circles in Judea. It would demonstrate
that there was indeed a close association between the first Christians
and the religious Jews.  The fact that the passage references to
"flee unto the mountains" is significant because it was in the hilly
wilderness of Judea that the Jewish revolutionaries had established
their base of operations. The passage would also yield another insight:
For the conclusion that God had intervened "for the elects' sake" would
indicate that possibly the Christian community at Jerusalem regarded
themselves as a favored elect group, and that God had intervened to save
the Temple during the Caligua affair presumably for their sakes.
(Brandon, TRIAL OF JESUS P 45)


  After the outbreak of the war, numerous prophets went about promising the
people, especially in Jerusalem itself, that God's intervention to help
the Jews was imminent.  As mentioned above, during the final siege when
Rome was overrunning the city, according to Josephus' account, a "certain
false prophet" proclaimed that God had decreed the people should congregate
in the Temple to receive the "signs of their deliverance".

 A group of "about 6000" men, women, and children obeyed the order and took
refuge on the last remaining colonnade of the outer court of the Temple.
The Roman soldiers, torched the colonnade in their fury, and all of them
were killed. (see J.W. 6.283-85).  Professor Brandon had speculated that
this  group "MIGHT" have been the Jewish Christian community, which was
waiting for instructions on Jesus' imminent return. This is of course, PURE
speculation: After all there were NUMEROUS groups of religious Jews at this
time. Also since Josephus was aware of the existence of the Jewish Christian
sect during the times of his writings, he presumably would have identified
them as such (assuming of course his writings was not re-edited by later
copyists.)

Effect of the Revolts on the Jews

  The Jews were soundly defeated by the Romans, yet many sustained a
passionate hope that God would eventually come and help them if they
remained faithful to Him. Josephus reported how some of the religious
revolutionaries had escaped to Egypt, especially in the city of Alexandria--
after the fall of Jerusalem.  The Jewish religious authorities there
fearing the same fate for their community as had occurred in Jerusalem,
co-operated with the Roman authorities in rounding up and executing these
religious zealots.  Because of their powerful religious convictions
towards monotheism, Josephus reports how even under tremendous torture,
every one of the arrested Jews refused to acknowledge Caesar as their God:

  "They were subjected to every conceivable form of torture and bodily
suffering, all of them contrived for the sole purpose of getting them to
affirm Caesar as lord.  Not a one of them gave in or was even about to
declare it, but everyone maintained their resolve, victorious over
coercion.  As they endured the tortures and flames, it was as if their
bodies felt no pain and their souls actually rejoiced in it.  What especially 
amazed those who saw this were the young Jewish children, none of whom could 
be forced to call Caesar a god! (J.W. 7.417-19)

   This tradition of "joyously" accepting one's martyrdom was taken up by
the early Christians, beginning with some of the original apostles.
Early Christians were eager to "suffer" to be worthy of their association
of Jesus (and the assured rewards of eternal life in heaven).

Pharisees Build the Foundation for Modern Judaism

  With the Temple destroyed, the Sadduccees lost their symbol of authority,
and Judaism fell under the authority of the Pharisees. In Palestine, the
Jews--though hardened and embittered, still held out hopes for salvation--
the Messiah would surely come soon, rebuild the Temple, and restore the
Kingdom of Israel to its promised greatness. Pharisee rabbis and scholars
banded together in academies to "reform" Judaism. It was during this time
that Judaism did away with the old sacrifices.

  This transformation is demonstrated by a story told concerning Rabbi
Yohannan ben Zakkai.--Shortly after the destruction of the Temple, a disciple
looked up at the ruined Temple, and despaired how it was possible to atone
for the sins of Israel with the Temple laid to waste. Rabbi Yohannan
reportedly told him "My son, be not grieved. We have another atonement
as effective as this. And what is it? It is acts of loving kindness, as it
is said: 'For I desire mercy and not sacrifice.'" (Aroth de Rabba Nathan, 6.)

  These Pharisaic academies also decided on which books of the Old
Testament would become part of the canon (which was, many centuries later
followed by Christian Protestants.)  They decided that the Books of
Maccabees, Tobit, and Ecclesiasticus would be excluded, while the Books
of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes would be included.  The Book of Esther (which
is the only book written by a woman according to tradition) was cut in
half.  Likewise eighteen psalms, known as the "Psalms of Solomon" were
excluded.  It took many years for the Songs of Songs to be accepted
because literally interpreted it has erotic passages on a man loving a
woman.  Rabbi Akiba fought to keep the text in the Old Testament, and
finally won-- arguing that these passages were to be interpreted
ALLEGORICALLY as the love of God for Israel. (See Section III,
Chapter 1).

The Second Jewish Revolt Against Rome of 132 C.E.

  The Jews regrouped for a final showdown with the Romans, some sixty years
after their earlier defeat in 70 C.E..  Inspired again by the book of Daniel
(such as verse 11:32 prophesizing "The people who are faithful to their
God will hold firm and fight back"), they gathered behind a guerilla
leader named Simeon, who was proclaimed as the long awaited messiah. Rabbi
Akiba pronounced Simean as the "Bar Kokhba" (Son of a Star) to symbolize
the re-enactment of the verse in Numbers 24:17: "A star shall come forth
out of Jacob, a comet arise from Israel". (A skeptical companion of the
rabbi was purported to have replied regarding his proclamation of Simeon
as the messiah, "Akiba, grass will grow in your jawbones and he [the messiah]
will still not have come.") (yadin Bar Kokhba, p 255).

  The Jews were initially successful and actually defeated the Romans in
their first battles--and were in control of Palestine for several years.
The Romans fought back.  Recalling their best general Julius Severus from
his duty in Britain to lead their armies, eventually the Romans were
able to retake Palestine, and in 135 C.E. Bar Kokhba was killed in a fierce
battle outside Jerusalem.  To punish their most troublesome subjects, the
Romans embarked on a deliberate campaign to wipe out the entire region--
and set about razing entire villages to the ground, and killing or enslaving
all the Jews that could be found.

  During the next years, Jerusalem was completely leveled, and replaced
with a new Roman city named Aelia Capitolina--which was  dedicated
to the pagan god Jupiter Capitolinus (whose shrine was built on top of
the former Temple site).  The area was called "Palestine" by the Romans
(chosen as a derogatory name for the Philistines, the ancient enemies of
the Jews). Any Jews that survived the Roman siege, were forbidden to set
foot or even to set eyes on the city of Jerusalem.

  Roman law also forbade the teaching of the Jewish law, upon pain of death.
The rabbi Akiba (who had survived the siege) refused to comply, even though
his friends begged him to stop and thus save his life.  He was eventually
arrested and then tortured by the Romans--who skinned him alive with
"combs of iron".  All the while the great rabbi was being tortured, it was
reported that he joyously recited the Jewish SHEMA (Deuteronomy 6:4), "Hear,
O Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord: And thou shall love the Lord thy
God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might"

  The Roman torturers were amazed, one crying out "Old man, old man, are you a
sorcerer, or do you defy me by showing joy in the midst of your pain?" To
which the rabbi Akiba replied, "Calm yourself. I am neither a sorcerer nor
a mocker; all my life long, I have read this verse of the Pentateuch, and
sorrowfully said to myself, when shall I fulfill the three ways of worshipping
God; I have proved that I love him with all my heart and all my means, but
I have not yet undergone the test of love with all my soul. I undergo it now,
and thus this is the moment in which I shall recite the SHEMA." And just as
the rabbi once again began to recite the SHEMA, he thereupon died.

  After the second Jewish revolt of 132 C.E., Rome had stamped out the Jewish
political threat to the Empire for good. In the process, Judaism itself
would become somewhat discredited, as different groups would want to
"disassociate" themselves from these Jewish fanatical revolutionaries.
(In fact Jews would not again regain political control over Palestine
until 1947, with the formation of the new state of Israel.)

   Between the period of the two Jewish revolts (ie 66 to 132 C.E.) would
be written the four gospel accounts of Mark, Matthew, Luke and John.
Scholars almost unanimously agree that the gospel of Mark was written
before the other gospels of Matthew, Luke, and John.  For this reason we
will focus our attention next to the gospel writer of Mark--and the
social, economic, and religious background against which he wrote.