SECTION VI Chapter 8 - Christian Attitudes Toward Sex "Marital intercourse, even with one's legitimate spouse, is forbidden and immoral, if the awakening of new life is prevented." --Augustine, as quoted by Pius X (1930) "You have heard that it was said, 'You shall not commit adultery.' But I say to you that every one who looks at a woman lustfully has already committed adultery with her in his heart". -- Jesus Christ "All witchcraft comes from carnal lust, which is in women insatiable." --Malleus Maleficarum (official Inquisition manual--15th century) Pagan societies were in general, tolerant towards a lax sexual environment and lifestyle. Greek pagan society was generally permissive of homosexual relationships, nude art, and prostitution (the latter which was made into a taxable industry). In some ancient ruins, (such as those preserved by the volcanic eruption at Pompey), may be found explicit pornographic scenes. On the other hand, many Greek pagan religious/philosophy sects shunned promiscuous sexual activity--idealizing instead, a chaste---even celibate, way of life. Even today when someone has a purely spiritual or intellectual friendship with a member of the opposite sex (ie a relationship with no sexual entanglements), then this is commonly referred to as a "platonic" relationship. As we will see next, it is likely that the attitudes of early Christians towards virginity and celibacy, were influenced from their encounter with both Greek philosophy, and the mystery religions. Examples of Chastity and Virtue in the Mystery Religions and Greek Philosophy According to Uta Ranke-Heinemann, in her book EUNUCHS FOR THE KINGDOM OF HEAVEN, it was not uncommon for pagan priests in the mystery religions to castrate themselves, as this was considered the highest sacrifice one could make to the gods: "Many pagan priests castrated themselves so that they would not be stained by sex, but be pure and holy mediators between the people and the god or goddess. Cultic castration may be found, for example, in Babylon, in Lebanon, in Phoenicia, on Cyprus, in Syria, in the cult of Artemis in Ephesus, in the cult of Osiris in Egypt, and in the Phyrgian cult of Attis and Cybele, which was widely disseminated in both East and West" (Uta Ranke-Heinemann, EUNUCHS FOR THE KINGDOM OF HEAVEN, p 99 which references Peter Browe, ZUR GESCHICHTE DER ENTMANNUNG, 1936, pp 13 ff). Some early pagan rituals required periods of sexual abstinence in order to place the believer in a state of "purity". According to the Greek Demosthenes (d 322 BC) "a certain number of days of abstinence were to be observed" before touching the sacred vessels of entering into temples. Likewise, Plutarch (d 120 BC) warned that one should wait at least one day after sex before entering into the temple. Certain schools of Greek philosophers went even further to suggest that the act of sex itself was unhealthy for men.--As early as the sixth century BC, the Greek philosopher Pythagoras taught that engaging in sex was harmful to men's health. He reasoned that through the loss of semen, men lost some of their vital life energy, and were in this way, weakened. (Women were not believed to be adversely affected by sex.) The philosophers Plato and Aristotle held similar beliefs. For example, Plato (fourth century BC) wrote in his LAWS how an ambitious Olympic winner "possessed in his soul the technique and the power of restraint" in sexual matters. Once the athlete had devoted himself to his goal, "it was said that he never touched a woman or a boy." (Note: Greek culture did not frown on homosexual relationships with boys, as long as they later married and had children.) Aristotle believed that sexual pleasure interfered with thinking. (NICOMACHEAN ETHICS 7,12). The Greek physician Hippocrates speculated in his EPIDEMICS (III,18) that a young man who had died after a seemingly simple upset stomach-ache, had been weakened by an earlier overindulgence in sex. Another Greek physician, Soranus of Ephesus, who attended the Roman Emperor Hadrian during the second century AD, believed virginity to be good for one's health. According to Soranus, the only justification for sexual activity was to have children. This attitude towards sex was a main tenet held by the prestigious Greek Stoic school of philosophy which lasted roughly from 300 BC to 250 AD. Even today, the term "stoic" refers to a person who can control his emotions and feelings--thus maintaining a calm composure even in the face of extreme pain, stress, or tragedy. Stoics recognized and respected marriage, but passion in marriage outside of procreating the human race, was frequently denounced. For example, the Stoic philosopher Seneca, who lived in Rome during the first century AD, wrote against passionate love--even for one's wife. According to his essay ON MARRIAGE: "All love for someone else's wife is shameful. But it is also shameful to love one's own wife immoderately. In loving his wife the wise man takes reason for his guide, not emotion. He resists the assault of passions, and does not allow himself to be impetuously swept away into the marital act. Nothing is more depraved than to love one's spouse as if she were an adulterer." Other pagan Stoics (such as Pliny the Younger (61-113 AD)) shared this view that intercourse, even in marriage, was only moral when engaged in for procreation. These writings were read and esteemed by some of the early Christian Church fathers. For example, the Church Father Jerome (d 420 AD) was so pleased with the Stoic Seneca's writings, that he quoted him in his letters against the pleasure-loving Jovian. (More on this below) (Footnote: see, AGAINST JOVIANIAN I, 49) The Greek gnostic sects, associated sex with the contamination of the body, which impeded the spirit's journey from the base elements of the earth. Thus, early gnostic converts into Christianity began to interpret Jesus and the gospels with a view that equated virginity with perfection-- although chastity was now equated with health for one's SOUL as opposed to health for one's PHYSICAL body! Pagans, while writing disparagingly about Christians, nevertheless spoke highly of the Christian dedication towards living an ascetic life, especially as it related to matters of sex. For example, the pagan physician Galen (who lived in the second century AD, wrote how even though he scorned the faith of Christians, nevertheless their self-discipline and control in moral living--especially their fearless attitudes towards death AND their sexual continence--were equal to that of the "genuine" Greek philosophers!: "Most people cannot follow a coherent argument. That is why they need parables, which they make good use of. Similarly nowadays we see people called Christians who draw their faith from parables and miracles. And yet sometimes they behave just like those who live according to a philosophy. For their scorn of death and its aftermath becomes evident to us every day, as does their sexual continence. For they have not only men but women too who live their entire lives sexually continent. Their numbers include individuals who have reached a stage in their self-discipline and their self-control which is not inferior to that of genuine philosophers." (quoted from Richard Walzer, GALEN ON JEWS AND CHRISTIANS, London, 1949, pp19-20) Contraceptives, Infanticide, and Child Abandonment Among Pagans and Jews Most ancient societies have fluctuated through periods during which its leaders either desired to increase the number of children--ie so as to produce more soldiers of war, etc; or else to decrease the number of children-- because of concerns regarding famine. One method by which community leaders could attempt to regulate the population was by controlling the age at which women entered into marriage. Another method (during periods of overpopulation) was to allow contraceptives, abortion, or child abandonment to limit family size. The oldest known contraceptive prescriptions, date back to around the second millennium B.C. in Egypt. These contraceptive prescriptions called for the preparation of such substances as crocodile or elephant dung, honey, and other gum like substances. The Greeks used olive oil as a contraceptive-- as such oily substances can be somewhat effective in halting the movement of the sperm in the vagina. Honey and oily substances have been common contraceptive recipes that have been used throughout history. One of the gums used in many ancient prescriptions came from the acacia shrub--which meant that it contained lactic acid, a common ingredient used in modern contraceptive jellies. (Vern and Bonnie Bullough, Ph.D., SIN, SICKNESS, AND SANITY, Meridian Books, 1977, p 94) Although some prescriptions had true medicinal value, probably the vast majority were quackery, based on amulets and other magical rites. For example, Pliny suggested preparing a contraceptive amulet by cutting open the head of a hairy spider, removing two worm-looking structures inside it, and then tying this to a deerskin. (Sarah B. Pomeroy, GODDESSES, WHORES, WIVES, AND SLAVES, p 167). Some pagan intellectuals justified the practice of abortion and infanticide, based upon fears that overpopulation would lead to economic hardships. Aristotle believed that every state had an ideal population which should not rise over 10,000 individuals. Aristotle was concerned that excess population brought on poverty and hunger. As Greek society allowed infanticide (primarily in the case of a weak or deformed newborn), Aristotle suggested abortion as a more humane method of birth control than infanticide: "let abortion be procured before sense and life have begun." (POLITICS, vii, 16). Some pagans believed it immoral to conduct an abortion/infanticide in ANY case. Hippocrates, for example, included in his famous medical oath a moral condemnation of abortion stating: "Neither will I administer a poison to anyone when asked to do so, nor will I suggest such a course. Similarly I will not give to a woman a pessary to cause abortion." Another common means of decreasing the family size, was through the abandonment of children. Both the Greeks and the Romans, had no humane, natural law which forbade the abandonment of young children. The father of the Greek and Roman household made the decision whether to accept a newborn into the family household or not. A wealthy father for example, could decide to dispose of an infant because he did not wish to divide the family property among too many children. A newborn that appeared weak or deformed was also likely exposed. Girls were abandoned more often than males, often for financial reasons--as dowries had to be provided to girls upon marriage to their husbands. Exposed children were typically abandoned in public places, so that others might pick them up (just as Christians would later abandon unwanted children on the doorsteps of churches.) (John Boswell, KINDNESS OF STRANGERS--THE ABANDONMENT OF CHILDREN IN WESTERN EUROPE FROM LATER ANTIQUITY TO THE RENAISSANCE, Pantheon Books, New York,1988, p 131). Thus, if the baby or child died, their parents could attribute this to the "will of the gods." The Greeks and Romans had a number of legends that spoke of the "gods" watching over certain abandoned children. Indeed, according to pagan legend, Romulus--the founder of Rome, and his twin brother Remus had been exposed as babies, and rescued by a she-wolf. Probably many abandoned children were picked up by others and became slaves. (Interestingly, most ancient Greeks and Romans saw the institution of slavery as the result of one's bad luck or fortune in life, as opposed to the result of any natural racial inferiority.) (See Section V, Chapter 17). Many abandoned girls that were picked up were probably forced into a life of prostitution. Jewish sages blasted pagans for their exposure of children and their promiscuity. Both the Jews and the ancient Egyptians typically reared ALL of the children born to them--as opposed to abandoning them. (Footnote: Diodorus (quoting Hecateus) on the Egyptians and the Jews 1.80.3, 40.3 as referenced by John Boswell, KINDNESS OF STRANGERS, FOOTNOTE 159, PAGE 134) Jews tended to see a large family as a blessing from God. Men were urged to marry multiple wives, including the sister-in-law of a deceased brother--in order to help support a large number of children. Early Christians followed the ancient Jews in their attitudes towards contraceptives and infanticide. The emperor Constantine made infanticide a capital crime in 318 AD. This decision was prompted by the Christian Church's humanitarian concern for children-- and secondly because of concerns, even then, of a declining Roman population base. (Gies, p 27) Ancient Jewish Views on Sex and Marriage Just as Jews criticized pagan laws and customs, pagans found certain Jewish practices to be (from their perspective) barbaric. Romans (as with the Babylonians, Egyptians, and Greeks) were monogamous--allowing only one wife. Thus, Jews were sometimes criticized for their ancient custom of allowing multiple wives--or polygamy. Greek and Roman pagans also found the ancient Jewish rite of circumcision to be an older, barbaric rite. (Indeed, other ancient peoples had also undergone circumcision, but (unlike the Jews) had abandoned its practice for many centuries. The Greek historian Herodotus who visited Egypt in the fifth century BC, wrote how Egyptians practiced circumcision "for the sake of cleanliness' (II, 37), and stated how other peoples, including the Jews had borrowed this custom from the Egyptians. (II, 104)) Jews did not hold the pagan philosopher attitude towards chastity and virginity (except for hellenized Jews such as Philo). Instead, traditional Jewish Pharisaic laws stressed the importance of marriage--in accordance with God's commandment to "be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth." (Genesis 9:1). The Talmud expounds on the importance of marriage as follows: "A twenty year old youth who lives without a wife is plagued by sinful thoughts" (bKiddushin 29 b), and "a man is always in the thrall of desire, from which only marriage frees him". (bYabmuth 63a). A rabbinic commentary on Yabmuth 88 states: "Whoever renounces marriage violates the commandment to increase and multiply; he is to be looked upon as a murderer who lessens the number of the beings created in the image of God." Thus during the time of Jesus, basically every Jewish rabbi was expected to marry. The Jewish Essene sect, which was probably influenced by Greek gnostic thought, did stress abstinence and virginity. This can be seen based on Josephus' writings on the Essenes: "Jews from birth...[the Essenes] turn away from the joys of life as if from an evil thing and embrace continence as a virtue. They judge marriage unfavorably, but they accept the children of others, so long as they are still at an age when they can be trained...[T]he consecrated silence of the[ir] building...is the consequence of their constant observance of sobriety and their custom of taking just enough food and drink for satisfaction... They are emphatically convinced that the body passes away and that matter does not last, but that souls are immortal eternally and forever...About souls they believe that they came forth from the most rarefied aether... If they were freed from the shackles of the flesh, then they would feel as if they had been released from long imprisonment and would soar back on high in blessed joy..." There is, however, yet another group of Essenes... They believe that whoever renounces marriage is neglecting an essential task in life, namely the begetting of offspring, that is, they think that if everyone had the same opinion as the others, the human race would soon come to an end. But they test their future wives for three years, and if these...prove their capacity for bearing children, then the marriage is entered into, they do not have intercourse during pregnancy, which goes to show that they do not marry for reasons of lust, but for the blessing of children." (THE JEWISH WAR II, 8,2-13) The similarities between the beliefs of the Essenes and the Greeks are striking. The description of their view on the nature of the human soul, sounds as it could come right out of Plato's REPUBLIC: That is, their belief "that they came forth from the most rarefied aether... If they were freed from the shackles of the flesh, then they would feel as if they had been released from long imprisonment and would soar back on high in blessed joy." Gospel Accounts of Jesus' Sayings on Sex Jesus held a very strict view on defining adultery. Per Matthew, Jesus strictly interprets the commandment against adultery (Ten Commandments) to mean one should not "lust": "You have heard that it was said, 'You shall not commit adultery.' But I say to you that every one who looks at a woman lustfully has already committed adultery with her in his heart". (Matthew 5:27-8) This is sometimes interpreted to also be a prohibition against pornography and lust. Remarrying after divorce is also considered adultery. Per Mark's gospel, no exceptions are given to this rule. However, Matthew does give ONE exception--where the marriage partner has been unfaithful: "For your hardness of heart Moses allowed you to divorce your wives, but from the beginning it was not so. And I say to you: whoever divorces his wife, EXCEPT FOR UNCHASTITY, and marries another, commits adultery." (Matthew 19:7-9, emphasis mine.) The disciples of Jesus at this point, asked him if it would be better not to marry (ie implying premarital sexual relations) because of this strict prohibition against divorce. To this, Jesus replied that" "Not all men can receive this precept, but only those to whom it is given. For there are eunuchs who have been so from birth, and there are eunuchs who have been made eunuchs by men, and there are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. He who is able to receive this, let him receive it." (Matthew 19:11-13) This sudden shift to a discussion on eunuchs, was interpreted by many early Christians to mean that celibacy was the idealized lifestyle for the pious. Additional support for this view was seen in Luke 20:34-6, which quotes Jesus as saying, "The sons of this age marry and are given in marriage; but those who are accounted worthy to attain to that age and to the resurrection from the dead neither marry nor are given in marriage, for they cannot die any more, because they are equal to angels and are sons of God, being sons of the resurrection." These passages have been studied by virtually all Christian groups to this day--all with different interpretations as to its true meaning. For example, some early Christians interpreted these passages to mean that it would be better for all men and women to remain sexless creatures all their lives. (Origen, the famous third century Christian theologian, had castrated himself, after reading these passages.) However, there were other passages, such as those in the Old Testament, which seemed to indicate that marriage was ordained by God himself. One of the most important verses was: "What therefore God has joined together, let not man put asunder". Paul's Views on Sex Paul's attitude towards sex was that it was best for a person to abstain from sex.-- But if a person could not contain their passions, then it was "better to marry than to burn" : "It it a good thing for a man to have nothing to do with women; but because there is so much immorality, let each man have his own wife and each woman her own husband... All this I say by way of concession, not command. I should like you all to be as I am myself; but everyone has the gift God has granted him, one this gift and another that. To the unmarried and to widows I say this: it is a good thing if they stay as I am myself; but if they cannot control themselves, they should marry. Better be married than burn with van desire. To the married I give this ruling, which is not mine but the Lord's: a wife must not separate herself from her husband; if she does, she must either remain unmarried or be reconciled to her husband, and the husband must not divorce his wife." (1 Corinthians 7: 1-11) At times, Paul's letters show that he was friendly with many women, who were prominent in the early church's missionary activities. He seemed to envision a SPIRITUAL equality between the races and sex: "There are no such things as Jew and Greek, slave and freeman, male and female; for you are all one person in Jesus Christ" (Galatians 3:28) However, Paul was talking spiritually in the above passage. As a practical matter here on earth, Paul very clearly supported a hierarchy of power, with God at the top, Christ next in power, men subordinate to Christ, and women subordinate to men. As Paul wrote, "the head of the woman is the man". And elsewhere, "For the man is not of the woman; but the woman of the man; Neither was the man created for the woman;' but the woman for the man" (1 Corinthians 11:8-12) Early Church Fathers' Views on Sex During the early centuries AD, various Christian fathers struggled with the issue as to whether Jesus meant for the virtuous to remain sexless. Christian gnostic groups, whose gnostic backgrounds associated physical (as contrasted with spiritual) matter as sinful including sex, took these views with them when they had converted. Orthodox Christians basically agreed, but viewed sex for the purpose of procreation to be the ONE exception. This view is presented by Clement, who believed in marriage only for the sake of having children. Thus, he forbade a man to have intercourse with an older wife: "Our ideal is not to experience desire at all... We should do nothing from desire. Our will is to be directed only toward what is necessary. For we are children not of desire but of will. A man who marries for the sake of begetting children must practice continence so that it is not desire he feels for his wife... that he may beget children with a chaste and controlled will." (Clement, STROMATA,3,57-58) Origin (185-254 AD) was the most important successor of the Alexandrian school and became a famous theologian of the Greek Orthodox Church. His father was killed in the Alexandrian persecution of 202 AD. The only reason Origin was not captured during this time was because his mother had hidden his clothes, thus forcing him to remain indoors. At the age of eighteen, Origin read Matthew verse 19:12 literally to mean that being sexless would give him a higher position in heaven--and so he castrated himself. Later he appeared to have recognized his error in interpreting the passage to refer to eunuchs--although he still believed celibacy to be more favored in the eyes of God. Like Clement, Origin believed the main purpose of marriage was to procreate children. Some women were thought to be worse than the animals--because animals would have nothing more to do with sex, once they had conceived. According to Origin, the daughters of Lot who slept with their father were more chaste than many other married couples. For once they conceived, they ceased having any more sexual relations with him. Origin combined the Jewish tradition of faith in one good God and Gnostic contempt for the body. Unlike the gnostics who believed an evil god made the world, Origin believed that the one good God made man. Therefore the existence of evil was explained by a prior Fall of pure souls—whereby the physical body arose as a "chain" or "prison" to hold the soul down. Origen believed in the eventual redemption of all life, even the Devil. (The Church declared him a heretic some three hundred years later, due to these views on the soul.) By the fourth century, many Christians were convinced of the importance of celibacy. In a letter from Pope Siricius written in the year 392 AD to the Bishop Anysius, the Pope suggests that Jesus would have REFUSED to have been born from a woman, unless they were a virgin: " Jesus would not have chosen birth from a virgin, had he been forced to look upon her as so unrestrained [ie willing to have sexual relations with Joseph] as to let that womb, from which the boy of the Lord was fashioned, that hall of the eternal king, be stained by the presence of male seed. Whoever maintains that, maintains the unbelief of the Jews." (Letter from Pope Siricius written to Bishop Anysius in the year 392 AD). St Jerome and His Famous Latin Translation of the Bible (Vulgate) From the fourth century onward, Christianity had emerged from being a persecuted group, into the favored religion of the Roman Empire. In the late fourth century, it became the official religion of the Empire, with all other religious groups being persecuted. Some devout believers looked back on their tradition of martyrdom, and chose to live an extreme ascetic lifestyle to demonstrate the intensity of their faith. To many Christians, they were "God's athletes"--famous celebrities who had foresworn all sensual pleasures to lead a life devoted to God. (Elaine Pagels, ADAM, EVE, AND THE SERPENT IN THE GARDEN OF EDEN, p 90) Against this background lived the famous ascetic and translator (and later saint), Jerome. In his youth, Jerome went to live in a cave in the Syrian desert as a hermit to reflect on the meaning of life. Trying to forego all the sensual pleasures of life, Jerome wrote on his experience: "how often, when I was living in the desolate, lonely desert, parched by the burning sun, how often I imagined myself among the pleasures of Rome! I used to sit alone, because my heart was filled with bitterness; my limbs stuck inside an ugly sackcloth, my skin black as an Ethiopian's...Day after day I cried and sighed, and when, against my will, I fell asleep, my bare bones clashed against the ground. I say nothing about my eating and drinking. Even when sick, solitaries drink only cold water, and a cooked meal is considered excessive. And yet he who, in fear of hell, had banished himself to this prison, found himself again and again surrounded by dancing girls! My face grew pale with hunger, yet in my cold body the passions of my inner being continued to glow. This human being was more dead than alive; only his burning lust continued to boil." (Jerome, letter 22, TO EUSTOCHIUM, 7, as quoted by Elaine Pagels, op cit., p 89) Eventually returning to Rome after spending two years in the desert, he became first a secretary and later a spokesman for Damasus, the first pope to live in the tradition of modern popes in the Vatican. There he befriended and advised some of the most powerful Christians in Rome. He left Rome after a young Christian woman (who following Jerome's strict austerity program of diet and prayer to recover from a fever) wasted away--and indeed died two months later. Critics from this endeavor hounded Jerome for the rest of his life. After five years in a monastery in Bethlehem, Jerome read a work by a celibate Christian monk who had argued that Jesus had never intended for celibacy to be superior over marriage. The Christian author--Jovian, argued "virgins, widows, and married women, who have once gone through Christian baptism, if they are equal in other respects, are of equal merit." (Jerome, ADVERSUS JOVINIANUM I,5, as quoted by Elaine Pagels p 91) Jovian concluded that all Christians could expect the same rewards in heaven--as opposed to ascetics receiving GREATER rewards for their virtues on earth. Jerome was outraged! He joined in with Ambrose and the young Augustine to condemn Jovian's writings as heretical, and further to push for excommunication. Jovian protested his excommunication, quoting support for his position in the Scriptures. For example, Jovian noted God's commandment to "Be fruitful and multiply" (Genesis 1:28), and pointed out that all the Jewish patriarchs and Christian apostles had married. He referenced Jesus' presence at the wedding of Cana where he turned water into wine. And last he turned to Paul, quoting from those passages that promoted marriage (1 Timothy 5:14, Hebrews 13:4) When Jerome read Jovian's treatise, he wrote that he heard "the hissing of the old serpent; by counsel such as this, the dragon drove man from Paradise." (Ibid I, 4, p 93). Writing passionately against Jovian's position, Jerome declared that Jesus himself had remained "a virgin in the flesh and a monogamist in the spirit"--faithful to his only bride, the Church. (Ibid I, 4 p 94) Also... "I will say what the apostle [Paul] has taught me... indeed in view of the purity of the body of Christ, all sexual intercourse is unclean." (Justin, I Apology 12) According to Jerome it was even a sin to love one's wife too much: "A man who is too passionately in love with his wife is an adulterer." Despite his excommunication, Jovian's position was supported by many leading Christians in Rome, much to the anger of Jerome. Jerome translated the Bible from various Greek texts into Latin. Jerome's translation was highly controversial at the time because of its treatment on certain passages to promote celibacy. Yet over the next centuries it was to be used by the Catholic church as the official Latin translation of the Bible, and in this manner remained unchallenged until Protestants began making their own translations. As mentioned, Jerome's translation was controversial when it first came out. Modern scholars have shown where Jerome purposely tampered with certain verses to promote his extreme views on celibacy: For example, Paul declares in 1 Corinthians 9:5 that all the apostles (including himself) and Peter were married and took their wives along with them on their missionary trips. Translated literally from the Greek, the verse says: "Don't we have the right to be accompanied by a sister [ie a Christian woman] as a wife, as the other apostles and the brothers of the Lord and Cephas?" Prior to 385 AD, Jerome had correctly translated the Greek "gune" as wife.-- But he changed his mind in his later edition, retranslating the word to mean merely a woman. It is probably not a coincidence that Jerome made this change shortly after reading a letter from then Pope Siricius which stated that he found it "indecent", even "criminal", when priests continued having sexual relations with their wives and begetting children after ordination. (Uta Ranke-Heinemann, EUNUCHS FOR THE KINGDOM OF HEAVEN, p 39) Jerome also reinterpreted the biblical verses stating that Jesus had brothers and sisters. (see Mark 6:3 and Matthew 13:55). In the middle of the second century, a work known as the Proto-Gospel of James explained that this reference was to stepbrothers and stepsisters arising from an earlier marriage of Joseph, who was now a widower. However, Jerome took this one step further, believing it was imperative that Joseph was a virgin too! (Ad Matth. 12) Naturally, according to Jerome, Mary and Joseph also maintained their virginity throughout their marriage! (Ibid, p 31) (Footnote: Jerome made another important contribution to the cause of celibacy when he reworked the Book of Tobit (which appears in the Catholic Bible). Through the centuries, Catholics have referred to the Book of Tobit (which was probably written sometime around the 200's BC) to teach that the purpose of marriage is to beget children, and NOT to engage in sexual pleasure. However, this view in the Book of Tobit was "invented" by the Church Father Jerome when he purposely altered key phrases during his translation of the Greek Bible into Latin: According to the original text, Tobias and his new wife (whose previous seven husbands died on their wedding nights) slept together on the first night. However Jerome rewrote that Tobias WAITED three nights before consummating his marriage to Sarah. Then he ADDED the sentence: "And now, Lord, you know that I am not taking this sister of mine out of lust, but only out of love of offspring" (Tob. 8:9). Where the original text quoted Tobias as saying "It is not good for man to be alone" (a quote from Genesis 2:18), Jerome OMITTED this passage from his translation. (EUNUCHS FOR THE SAKE OF HEAVEN, Uta Ranke-Heinemann, Translated by Peter Heinegg, Doubleday, 1990, pp 16-17) More recent Catholic editions of the Bible have removed Jerome's alterations. (End of footnote) St. Augustine's Doctrine of Original Sin St. Augustine interpreted the Genesis story of Adam and Eve in a way so as to associate the "original sin" of Earth's first couple with their SEXUAL PASSION in the Garden of Eden. St Augustine was more uncertain whether or not SEX for PROCREATION purposes, was ALSO sinful or not. In 389 AD, he determined that even sex for purposes of procreating children was evil: "The question is asked, quite properly, how we should imagine the union of man and woman before they sinned, and whether the blessing, 'Increase and multiply and fill the earth' is to be understood in the carnal or spiritual sense." Augustine concluded that there could have been no sex in Eden, as all sex was lustful and therefore sinful. In his latter years, he returned to the subject again--wondering if the children of Adam and Eve in paradise were conceived "by the gift of the almighty Creator, who could have made them himself without parents", or begotten through ordinary sexual means. (DE BONO CON.2). By 415 AD, Augustine had reversed his earlier stance on the issue, concluding that Adam and Eve must have had sex, but that it was an "innocent" passionless union. In his work DE CIVITATE DEI (THE CITY OF GOD), he wrote: "Human organs, without the excitement of lust, could have obeyed the human will for all the purposes of parenthood." Augustine also had a solution on how the male organ might work without excitation, citing examples of other human voluntary actions: "Some people can make their ears move, either one at a time or both together." Or, "There are individuals who can make musical notes issue from the rear of their anatomy, so that you would think they were singing." Augustine offered some technical details on how this might apply towards sex, saying "At a time when there was no unruly lust to excite the organs of generation ... the seminal flow [of Adam] could have reached the womb [of Eve] with as little rupture of the hymen and by the same vaginal ducts as is at present the case, in reverse, with the menstrual flux... Perhaps these matters are somewhat too delicate for further discussion." Even though St Augustine believed that Adam and Eve had engaged in a "passionless" sex before the Fall, some theologians continued to stress that there had been no sex at all in the Garden of Eden prior to Eve's sin. Proof for this position was cited using the verse in Psalms (50:7) which states: "Behold, I was brought forth in iniquity, and in sin did my mother conceive me." To some theologians, this was interpreted to mean that ALL sex, even "passionless" sex (ie done for purposes of procreation only) was also a sin! To Augustine, virginity was perceived as the highest ideal, next followed by marriage WITHOUT sex. Sex was to be used only for procreation. In this way, Augustine also believed that polygamy for the sake of having children was superior to marriage with sex "aimed at earthly pleasure": "I rather approve using the fertility of many women for an unselfish purpose that the flesh of a single woman for her own sake. For in the first case one is striving for a benefit that was appropriate for those Old Testament times, while in the second case we are dealing merely with the satisfaction of a lust aimed at earthly pleasure." (DE DOCTRINA CHRISTIANA 3,18) Augustine also blasted the use of any contraception by a husband and wife, as this by definition, indicated that the sex was done for pleasure and not for procreation: "Marital intercourse, even with one's legitimate spouse, is forbidden and immoral, if the awakening of new life is prevented. This is what Onan the son of Judah did, and on account of that God killed him."(CASTI CONNUBII, 1930) (see discussion of the story of Onan in SECTION VI, Chapter 3 under Ethics). With Augustine, there was no emphasis on love in a marital relationship-- Many of his own writings tell of his great struggle to fight off the strong evil sexual lust that had haunted him for the remainder of his life. According to his good friend Possidius, St. Augustine took extra precautions to ensure that he was never left alone with a woman, not even his sisters, saying: "No woman ever set foot inside his house, he never spoke with a woman except in the presence of a third person or outside the parlor. He made no exceptions, not even for his own elder sister and his nieces, all three of them nuns." (VITA 26) Sex During the Middle Ages During the Middles Ages, chastity and virginity were held as ideal virtues in both men and women. Medieval theologians, quoting from St. Jerome and St. Augustine stressed the importance of not passionately loving even one's wife too much.--According to St. Jerome: "A man who is too passionately in love with his wife is an adulterer." Sexuality was held to be acceptable only for procreation. In the letters of St. Paul, one reads "It is better to marry than to burn". Thus, marriage was viewed as an acceptable method of combating sexual desire, but chastity was better. Still, during the early Middle Ages, which was generally characterized by savage violence and barbarity, it was easy to dismiss sexual discursions as proof that mankind really was inherently "sinful" and "corrupt". Promiscuity and marriages within the clergy was always a problem--but this extended out into the laity as well: Feudalistic lords and barons, ruled as masters over serfs working the land in a state of semi-slavery. Peasant women had no legal rights to sue in court, if they were raped by a nobleman. As for the clergy, as early as 605 AD, St. Augustine II of England complained of wandering monks and friars ("degraded vagrants") who hawked fake relics, swindled, and seduced women. A number of penitential drawn up by the priesthood described the problem of sexual conduct among the clergy.--Sexually oriented sins were generally considered more serious for priests and monks, than for the layman. A graduated system of penances was devised, ranging from "evil thoughts" to nocturnal emissions, to "familiarity" with a woman, "touching and kissing" a woman, attempting to seduce a woman, to finally masturbation, homosexuality, and last, "fornication with beasts." (Gies, op cit., p 64) Incest is also mentioned, although interestingly these penitential emphasized the relationship between a MOTHER and son-- as opposed to a father and daughter (the latter which is rarely mentioned). Today, psychiatrists and sociologists believe it is much more common for sexual abuse to be imposed by the father--NOT by the mother! (Ibid., p 65). This ties in with how the Church came to see women as inherently "sinful". (See next chapter.) Earlier penitential described a penalty of fasting for sexual sins. For example, the English theologian Bede (672-735) instituted penitential that punished adultery by a sentence of fasting from two to seven years. St. Ecgbert, archbishop of York, established a detailed list of penances in 729 AD, for unusual methods of love-making. Under it, a monk or nun who fornicated with a layman was to fast for three years (their layman partner was to fast for two years.) If a child was born, the period of fasting was extended to four years. If the child was killed to hide the sin, retribution was extended to seven years. A bishop who engaged in homosexual practices was punished by a sentence of fasting for fourteen years. A bishop who fornicated with cattle was to fast eight years for the first offence, and ten years for repeated encounters. Through the centuries, more severe penalties for sexual offences were sometimes instituted--For example King Canute (1015-1035) decreed that the sinner's nose or ears be cut off. Sex among Catholic Clergy Before Christians gained power in Rome under the emperor Constantine, there was no law imposing celibacy among the priesthood. During the fourth century, some Christian Orthodox theologians denounced the practice of marriage in the priesthood. It was not until the Council of Nicea in 325 AD, that priests were forbidden to marry FOLLOWING ordination. (This ruling did not apply to priests who were already married. ) During the fifth century AD, the Western Church required celibacy among the priesthood. To halt marriages by clergymen who disobeyed Church edicts to remain celibate, the Church took control over the sanctification of marriage ceremonies in the ninth century, thus replacing a largely secular marriage ceremony with the religious ceremony that we know today. Still, this did not prevent some clergymen from having wives and children. In some localities, they regularly paid a special tax as a penalty. Still, sex among the priesthood (either with wives or with concubines) was not uncommon. At various times, the Catholic Church under a reformist- minded pope, would attempt to crack down on sexual practices. In one extreme case, Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085) punished priests who married with harsh penalties. During his term, a number of married priests were captured by mobs who castrated them, and afterwards exposed their mutilated parts to the public. Gregory's successor, Urban II, offered the wives of priests as slaves to local noblemen. Over the centuries, sex among the priesthood remained a problem. In 1171, an abbot-elect named Clarembald boasted that he had fathered some 17 bastards in just one village. The Prince Bishop of Liege boasted that he had procreated 14 bastards in only 22 months. In Germany, the word for a child born out of wedlock was "Pfaffenkind" (meaning "priest's child"). Many priests naturally lamented the scandalous actions of their fellow churchmen. At the Council of Ravenna held in 1261, the presiding archbishop told his clergy: "I cannot with a safe conscience commit the confessions of the laity to you...For ye lead women behind the altar under pretense of confession and there ye deal as the sons of Eli dealt at the door of the tabernacle, which is horrible to relate and more horrible to do... Can I commit women's confessions to the priest Gerardo here present, when I know well that he has a whole house full of sons and daughters?" Confessions proved to be especially tempting to priests, as women frequently discussed sexually related "sins" in great detail. The confessional booth was instituted in the 16th century, very possibly to prevent holy men from being tempted to use their authority to ask a pretty girl to step behind the alter. Baptisms too, provided temptations to the clergy, as converts during the early Middle Ages were baptized naked. During the tenth century, females began to wear a light garment during the actual baptism. However, after being dunked three times in the water by the priest and being anointed by him, the priest would also take off her garment, and wrap her in a dry robe. Even in the convents, there were reported problems of pregnancies between nuns and monks. (It is to be remembered that a women's family could force her to live in a convent, against her will). When King Henry VIII (1491-1547) dissolved the convents throughout England, it was claimed that bones of newborn babies could be found "all over the place". The clergy lashed out against corrupt practices they saw among their brethren. In 1489, the Archbishop of Canterbury charged that the Abbot of St. Albans had appointed a whore named Elena Germyn as his prioress, whose sexual favors he shared with his monks. The famous reformist scholar Erasmus wrote that during this period, chastity was more easily lost WITHIN the cloister, then outside of it. Sometimes, monks commented on deviant sexual practices they saw around them to warn others. A Franciscan monk named Salimbene di Adamo (born 1221 in Parma), wrote a chronicle on the debased sexual activity that he saw in the priesthood, in order to warn his fifteen year old niece, who was then receiving her education in a convent. His chronicle describes in detail, homosexual practices "especially among scholars and clerks" but also among nuns. He also described detailed stories involving seduction, rape, religious erotic halluciations and visions, and blasphemy. One of his stories told of an aged bishop named Faventino who used to take little girls to bed with him, where he fondled them. He would bribe them by placing gold coins on their "best" parts, and letting the children keep them afterwards. Writings by Church authorities from the thirteenth through late fifteenth centuries describe a society where adultery was rampant. Johannes Teutonicus (early thirteenth century) observed that nearly everyone committed the sin of fornication--and that this was by far the most common sin. Bishop Bartholomew of Exeter (twelfth century) complained how most people did not even consider fornication to be a sin. This attitude became so widespread and popular, that in 1287, the Church declared this loose view on sex to be heretical. This apparently did not work. St Vincent Ferrer (early fifteenth century) wrote that virtually all boys had lost their virginity by the time they were 15 years old. The popular preachers Olivier Maillard and Michel Menot complained that most people still did not considered fornication to be a sin in the late fifteenth century. Infanticide and Child Abandonment During the Middle Ages Unlike the pagans, the Orthodox church strongly condemned the exposure of children--upon penalty of death. In this regard, the Church was demonstrating a genuine and humane concern with the plight of children! However, as Christians were driven essentially by the same economic hardships as pagans, exposure still occurred among the poor. During the centuries, some Christian theologians and scholars spoke compassionately on the economic forces that drove desperate parents to expose their children, and proclaimed that this was therefore NOT a mortal sin. There was however ONE exception--if the abortion or abandonment resulted from hiding a pregnancy by an unwed mother. Sex was considered sinful except in cases of conceiving children. Therefore abortion or abandonment was viewed as transforming a "moral" act (sex for procreation) into an "immoral", or "sinful" one (lustful sex). Hence there was a great deal of stigma attached to being an unwed mother during the Middle Ages. Interestingly, pagans unlike their Christian contemporaries, did NOT appear to attach much stigma to illegitimacy, as there is very little attention given to the subject by pagan writers. (Frances and Joseph Gies, MARRIAGE AND THE FAMILY IN THE MIDDLE AGES, Harper & Row, 1987, p 29) Some historians believe infanticide was not uncommon during the Middle Ages, although now for religious reasons--to hide the sin of a pregnacy. They speculate that desperate peasant women chose to hide their pregnancies, as they found themselves caught between a socio-political system whereby they were forced to submit to their master's sexual demands, and a religious system that harshly stigmatized illegitimacy and bastard offspring. Thus, pregnant unmarried peasant women felt that the only option available to them was to attempt to conceal their pregnancy and later dispose of their newborn babies, either through infanticide or abandonment. Even for legitimate babies, a number of medieval religious beliefs made it possible to legally kill one's own UNBAPTIZED babies. To understand this, one must know a little of the background of medieval beliefs. According to Catholic tradition, it was commonly taught that every unbaptized child was full of original sin, and therefore still under the sway of the Devil's powers. (The mother was believed to have also relapsed into a state of sin-- from the act of giving birth to her sinful baby. She could NOT participate in the church fellowship again, until the priest had purified her through special rites.) Unbaptized infants were not allowed to be buried within the churchyard, and were sometimes buried with a stake through the heart, so that they could not rise from the dead and harm the living. Because UNbaptized children were not protected from the power of the Trinity, it was believed that demon fairies could secretly be exchanged (ie "changelings") in place of unbaptized human children. "Changelings" were believed to be small and sickly. One test for a "changeling" was to place it over a fire. Human children would remain silent. But if the "changeling" child screamed, the parent could be legally justified in executing such a child immediately (such as by throwing it into the fire.) Some historians note this belief may account for the high number of infants that died from burning during the Middle Ages. (Ibid, referencing Kellum 1974). There were a high number of infant deaths reported from being overlayed, or smothered by their mother who shared the same bed. The Malleus Malficarum held that witches sometimes killed children-- and then deviously positioned them next to the mother at night in bed, to make it appear she had overlain the child. Still, strong Christian injunctions against the killing of newborns, probably led to more babies being abandoned, as opposed to killed--relative to pagan times. Foundling hospitals (which were established as early as the eighth century in Italy) become common throughout Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, when the population was rapidly growing. However, conditions in these foundling hospitals and orphanages were so terrible, that children were often neglected and/or subjected to harsh treatment. Consequently (although these orphanages were probably founded with the best of intent), the abuse and death rates were still very high among children who had been abandoned there.