Prostitution Many historians have dubbed the "business" of prostitution as the world's oldest profession. Without doubt, prostitution existed in most, if not all, ancient pagan societies. Prostitution was legal in both ancient Greece and Rome--and a taxable business at that. Although prostitution was illegal in Western Christendom, it was still actively engaged in--with brothel houses sometimes being close in proximity to churches. Church and state leaders typically looked the other way--considering prostitution a "necessary" evil. --Prostitution within the Mystery Religions Many modern historians and biblical scholars have associated the ancient worship of mother goddesses with loose sexual morality--ranging from sacred prostitutes to orgasmic fertility rites. Although there are few surviving writings on this, there is some evidence in Sumner, Babylon, Canaan, Anatolia, and Greece that some women DID live in the Temple compound of a goddess. Here, they were free to come and go as they pleased, and even to raise their families there. There, they might choose to engage in the ancient customs of the worshipped Goddess--which in some cases may have involved sexual encounters on the Temple premises. Other meetings did not appear to have involved any sex-- but would entail single and married women getting together, say dancing on a moonlit hill (possibly under the influence of certain drugs or alcohol.) Husbands were said to sometimes complain, but usually did not like to interfere with what was considered to be religious matters. Those women devotees of these mystery religion, who performed sexual activity in the name of the goddess, perceived this as a "divine" act-- relating to the procreation of new life on earth. (One ancient temple plaque shows two lovers embracing on one side, with a baby on the other side.) The women devotees thought of themselves as "sacred women", as opposed to "sinful" prostitutes. Indeed, women who lived at the pagan goddess Temple compounds were highly respected--and included daughters from wealthy or royal families. These women were free to leave the complex at any time and marry. Even as late as the first century BC, Strabo tells us that these women were considered to make exceptionally good wives. (Merlin Stone, WHEN GOD WAS A WOMAN, p 155) It was probably the ancient Greek historian Herodotus who was responsible for popularizing the view of the "foul" custom of sacred prostitution. Per Herodotus: " The foulest Babylonian custom is that which compels every woman of the land once in her life to sit in the temple of Aphrodite and have intercourse with some stranger...When a woman has once taken her place there she goes not away to her home before some stranger has cast money into her lap and had intercourse with her outside the temple, but while he casts the money, he must say "I demand thee in the name of Mylitta (that is the Assyrian name for Aphrodite)." It matters not what be the sum of money, the woman will never refuse... After their intercourse she has made herself holy in the goddess' sight and goes away to her home; and thereafter there is no bribe however great that will get her. So then the women that are fair and tall are soon free to depart, but the uncomely have long to wait." (Tikva Frymer-Kensky, IN THE WAKE OF THE GODDESSES--WOMEN CULTURE, AND THE BIBLICAL TRANSFORMATION OF PAGAN MYTH,A Fawcett Columbine Book Published by Ballantine Books, 1992,p 200, quoting A.D. Godley, HERODOTUS, Loeb Classical Library (London: Heinemann, 1920)) According to Frymer-Kensky, Herodotus was reporting from the perspective that Greek ways were superior to the Babylonians, and was probably exaggerating: "Herodotus' observations about Babylon are generally not as accurate as those of Egypt, and even his observations about Egypt are not that trustworthy. Herodotus, like all Greeks, wrote about 'barbarians' with the intention of proving the superiority of Greeks, and allegations of cannibalism and sexual licentiousness abound. In his descriptions of sexual mores, he may also have been trying to show the horrible results that could follow if proper women were not kept as guarded and secluded as they were in Greece. All the later Roman and Christian allegations of sexual initiation ultimately derive from this once passage in Herodotus." --Prostitution within Judaic-Christianity Based on references that exist in the Old Testament, prostitution appears to have been common during the times of the ancient hebrews. Interestingly, some prostitutes--such as Tamar and Rahab were portrayed favorably--even as heroines--within the Old Testament. However, later Old Testament prophets (such as Ezekiel) often railed against prostitutes and foreign women as the "cause" for the hebrew people slipping into sin. Prostitutes were among the sinners that Jesus reportedly preached to during his ministry. According to Christian tradition, Mary Magdalene (who is described as a sinner before she met Jesus), was a former prostitute. This is significant, because Mary Magdalene played an important role in the New Testament.--For example she was among the women who visited Jesus' tomb, and saw the resurrected Jesus. Many early Christians preached in brothel houses to convert prostitutes, and there are legends of prostitutes who later became saints. As Christians gained power in the Roman Empire, prostitution came to be seen as a necessary evil. St. Augustine, many of whose doctrines were enshrined within the Catholic Church, argued on the "necessity" of prostitution, because: "If you expel prostitutes from society, you will unsettle everything on account of lusts". During the Middle Ages, leading theologians and scholars such as St. Thomas Aquinas argued that the elimination of prostitution would lead to even GREATER sins in society. Aquinas compared prostitution to a sewer in a palace. If the sewer were removed, the palace would be filled with pollution. Likewise, if prostitution were eliminated, then the world would become filled with even greater evils-- sodomy and murder. Thus, prostitution was tolerated by Catholics (although prostitutes were excluded from the Church as long as they continued in their profession). Offspring from women who had no fathers were stigmatized for the rest of their lives as "bastards" by society. Still, they were not personally blamed by the Church for the "sin" that led to their procreation-- and therefore could be baptized, and even enter the priesthood. Some early Protestant reformers attempted to purify society from prostitution, but most (like Martin Luther) eventually left the brothel houses alone, fearing that their closure might lead to too many disruptions. Although there were was a drive to close brothels in cities such as London and Paris, these were later rescinded, as most Protestant leaders, as with their Catholic counterparts, came to view prostitution as a "necessary" evil. Masturbation Masturbation occurs when a person stimulates him or herself to achieve sexual arousal-- WITHOUT the use of another partner. Although there are no clear passages that forbid masturbation within the Bible, two passages are sometimes interpreted to refer to masturbation: * In Leviticus 15:16-18 we are told that if a man copulates, then he should wash his skin and clothes; and that he is to be considered unclean until the evening. *The story of Onan in Genesis 38 is sometimes interpreted as a prohibition against masturbation. In this story, Onan was commanded to take the wife of his dead brother for his own. Instead, of impregnating her with his seed, he "spilled it on the ground". This act reportedly so displeased God, that He put Onan to death. (As mentioned in Section VI, Chapter 3, this story could be interpreted to mean that Onan's sin was that he did not to impregnate his brother's wife--instead of meaning that all masturbation was evil. While the Hebrews did not have a direct prohibition against masturbation (which they did have one concerning concerning homosexuality), later Talmudic tradition within Judaism did regard masturbation as a sin. Orthodox Jewish males were prohibited from extending their hands below their waist, or form viewing genitalia. Christians also regarded masturbation as a sin. From the number of penitentials that list punishments for masturbation, it was also a known problem during the Middle Ages. During the eighteenth century, medical authorities began to equate promiscuous activity with insanity. Syphilis appeared in Europe for the first time in the late fifteenth century. Victims of syphilis were frequently sexually promiscuous individuals (who had frequented brothels, etc). It was observed that they could go insane with the disease. Because it was not understood that syphilis was an infectious sexually transmitted disease, (this was not discovered until the nineteenth century), social leaders believed that all excessive sexual activity "caused" insanity. The Lausanne physician S. Tissot (1728-1797) popularized the view that sexual activity "cased" insanity. He noticed that sexual activity (as with exercise) increased the blood circulation. Because blood flowed to the head, Tissot (erroneously) concluded that this starved the nerves--which increased one's susceptibility to insanity. Tissot--in accordance with his religious beliefs--already believed that sexual activity was a sin. He therefore pronounced that masturbation was dangerous. Furthermore, as masturbation was easy to engage in by young children, he reasoned that their tender age made them especially susceptible to brain damage. Likewise, adults were also at risk, as they "knew" they were engaging in a sexual sin. Tissot believed that their nervous system could be damaged in the process-- leading them to become insane. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, most U.S. doctors came to endorse Tissot's view that masturbation could lead to insanity. As further "proof", some doctors pointed towards the large numbers of patients in mental hospitals who masturbated. Their conclusion-- It was the masturbation of these patients that had contributed to their mental illness! There were a number of doctors who published cases that claimed their patient's mental illness was "caused" by masturbation. Some also claimed that masturbation could develop into homosexuality. (This was believed to be another route to insanity--since ANY sexual activity that was not engaged in for procreation was seen as a religious "cause" of mental illness.) It was not until early in the twentieth century, as masturbation began to become scientifically tested, that there was shown to be no cause and effect between masturbation and insanity. (The one exception, of course, is where the individual psychologically experiences feelings of "guilt"-- from engaging in what she or he "believes" to be a religious sin.) Despite the scientific evidence, some conservative religious groups still teach that masturbation is "sinful".) Chastity Belts Also known as a "girdle of purity", chastity belts peaked in popularity during the twelfth century, when crusaders and warring knights were away from their homes for long periods of time. Forged out of metal by blacksmiths, a husband could lock his wife in one of two forms of girdles-- a partial chastity belt covering only the front region of the vagina (with a narrow vertical slit which allowed for urination), or a full chastity belt which also covered the back regions of a woman's anatomy (with a second opening to allow for defecation.) Physicians of the time claimed that a women could wear either the full or partial chastity belts for months without any harmful effects--as long as the woman washed the area frequently. There are of course some horror stories (many of them probably apocryphal) associated with chastity belts.--For example, the faithful wife, who learned she was pregnant with her husband's child AFTER he had left with the key, or the husband who lost the key, or was captured and killed. Although the historical accuracy of these stories are questionable, it has been verified that some nuns, (such as St. Rose (b 1586)) voluntarily donned chastity belts and threw away the key, to symbolize their purity and devotion to Christ. During the Victorian era, a MALE version of the chastity belt was introduced to cure masturbation. Instead of the cage-like design found in women's chastity belts, the male chastity belt involved pulling the foreskin over the male organ and piercing this with rings/wire to hold it together. The discomfort caused by the chastity belt was believed to be helpful in holding the sinful acts of masturbation under control. Male Castration Male castration has been a popular operation in many ancient cultures-- being used on household slaves, sexual offenders, and political prisoners. Castration of the male testes, cuts off the daily supply of testosterone, and with it, aggressive tendencies. Castration (in addition to halting the sexual drive) transforms males into smooth-skinned, facially hairless, high-voiced, plump, and docile individuals. If the penis is also removed, a eunuch is produced, who in addition to the above, cannot copulate at all. Eunuchs were popular as "safe" household servants and heads of sultan harems. Eunuchs also served as lovers to Roman emperors and companions to Catholic popes and cardinals. (Charles Panati, PANATI'S EXTRAORDINARY ENDINGS ON PRACTICALLY EVERYTHING AND EVERYBODY, Harper & Row, 1989, p 290) Matthew 19:12 discusses three ways in which a eunuch could be produced-- ie through birth, through involuntary castration, and last through voluntary castration to make oneself chaste: "For there are eunuchs who have been so from birth, and there are eunuchs who have been made eunuchs by men, and there are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. He who is able to receive this, let him receive it." Early Christian fathers interpreted this passage to mean that virginity was the highest goal of virtuous Christians. As discussed in an earlier section, Origen castrated himself in his late teens, because of this passage, to make himself a eunuch. Constantine I, outlawed castration during his reign in the fourth century AD, upon penalty of death. However after Constantine's death in 337 AD, his son Constantine II filled many of the highest positions within the palace with eunuchs. During the next centuries, the Byzantine Empire became the leading center in the world for castrating men. (Charles Panati, PANATI'S EXTRAORDINARY ENDINGS OF PRACTICALLY EVERYTHING AND EVERYBODY, P 300). During the seraglio period of the Byzantine Empire, castrated men (known as castrati) headed the government's civil service academy and guarded the royal harems. Islamic historians claim that the practice of using eunuchs to guard harems of women, was unknown by the Muslim Ottoman Turks--until AFTER they had conquered the Byzantine Empire in the fifteenth century AD. (Ibid). Castration to Produce Male Sopranos Males were castrated to produce a soprano-like tenor voice. The Romans practiced this castration as early as the year 200 AD, during the reign of the Emperor Septimius Severus. These castrati (ie only testicles were removed) became even more popular after the Roman Empire became Christianized. Because women were not allowed to sing in church, (ie due to St. Paul's injunction of women in the church), this posed a problem when higher notes were needed in Church choirs. If young boys were trained for the soprano roles, their voices could at any time deepen upon hitting puberty, making them unreliable singers. A man could try and sing falsetto, but this too often sounded faked and strained ,not to mention the falsetto's range was often limited. Castrati, on the other hand, had a powerful soprano-like voice, that was said to be extremely sweet and beautiful. During the next seventeen hundred years, Church officials would openly deplore the practice of castrating boys. Yet on the other hand, some played patron to promising castrati, and openly competed among themselves to recruit the best of the castrati into their own cathedral choirs. (The Vatican chapel had theirs too.) Poor families would castrate sons with promising voices, in exchange for a fee from a bishop or cardinal. (This was also the fate of some abandoned children.) Everyone "looked the other way" when church officials claimed that the lad was accidentally emasculated by a charging boar. (Ibid, p 303) The first Italian opera was staged in Florence in 1597, and became even more successful in the coming centuries. Because women were banned from the stage until the late eighteenth century, there was a demand over the next two centuries for castrati to play parts of female sopranos in operas. A number of these castrati opera stars were adored by their fans throughout Europe, which included kings and queens. By the 1600's, larger numbers of boys were emasculated by parents, who hoped that their sons might one day become one of the superstar (and wealthy) singers. Castration surgery had a high mortality rate (about 80%) in earlier centuries. (Panati, p 291) Even though the procedure was later modified to minimize bleeding and infection, still, mortalities continued. In the nineteenth century, the Italian government declared castration to be illegal. Pope Pius IX condemned the practice in a papal bull in 1851. However, until the demand for castrati fell off, the mutilation of young boys continued. (Indeed, during the time of Pius IX's bull, the Vatican choir still eagerly employed castrati-- the director of papal music at this time was the celebrated castrato Domenico Mustafa) (Ibid p 309) The castrati fell in popularity only after female sopranos were allowed to sing on stage during the nineteenth century. Female superstar opera singers, such as Jenny Lind, began to replace the castrati for soprano leads. Later generations of opera fans came to view the castrati as pitiable men who had been mutilated for the sake of their art. The last famous castro, Allessandro Moreschi, made a gramophone recording in 1903. Female Castration Female castration is an operation performed on young girls to mutilate their genital organs to prevent sexual pleasure. The operation may consist of: (1) a circumcision of the clitorus (ie excise of the prepuce and tip of the clitorus), (2) complete clitoridectomy (removal of the entire clitorus, or sexual organ) and/or (3) infibulation. Infibulation comes from the Latin word "fibula" meaning "safety pin". It entails sewing up the female's vaginal opening, except for a tiny opening--thus assuring that the girl remains a virgin. The milder operation (#1 above) is often referred euphemistically as a "circumcision". The operation in its more extreme forms (ie combined with #2 and/or #3), is clearly more similar, in terms of mortality and pain, to a castration instead of a circumcision. Arguably, the burden of pain for women is greater than in castrated men.-- For women who have had the operation are ALSO expected to later marry and to engage in sex which is both unpleasurable and sometimes very painful. Scar tissue forming after the operation further constricts the opening, thus enhancing pleasure for the husband, (but causing great pain to the wife). The scar tissue also makes childbirth more complicated and painful. Often, the wife must undergo a second operation to make her vagina large enough to deliver her child. (After the birth, she may have further surgery to tighten it up again.) This may or may not be performed with anesthetics or antiseptics. Historians do not agree on the origins of female castration. Some place it in Africa, others along the Arabian peninsula and Asia. Its practice was picked up by the Muslims after they conquered Egypt in 742 AD, from where it spread to West Africa, and eastwards across Sudan to Pakistan, India, Malaysia and Indonesia. Today female castration is practiced on Muslim women primarily in these Asian and African countries. (That is, the operation is NOT common today in Near Eastern Arab countries including Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Algeria, Jordan, and Tunisia. The operation is however still common in Egypt and Pakistan.) (see Marilyn French, THE WAR AGAINST WOMEN, Summit Books, 1992, p 106) In those societies that push the surgery on their females, this is largely considered as a "purification" ritual. Women who are not cut at puberty are shunned as unclean and unfit to marry. Thus women subject their daughters to the surgery, in order to ensure that they will find husbands. Some believe that their daughters will not go to heaven, unless the operation is performed. (In Moslem societies, just as in Christian ones, it is taught that women are created less moral than men. For example Mohammed wrote: "When Eve was created, Satan rejoiced." As we shall see in the next chapter, both conservative Jews and Christians also held similar views. Many Moslems hold very strict views towards a woman's purity--In many Muslim societies, any woman who has sex outside of marriage will become a social outcast, even when raped.) Historically, Christians have also engaged in both clitoridectomy and infibulation for sexual "problems", (although this was NOT applied to ALL females). The followers of the Ethiopian Christian Church and the Copts in Egypt have engaged in infibulation, along with their Muslim neighbors. During the late nineteenth century in Victorian times, operations to excise the clitoris and/or ovaries were conducted to "cure" such female sexual deviations as masturbation, nymphomania, and homosexuality. Some Victorian doctors considered the ovaries to be the location of female irritability and craziness-- and thus prescribed their removal to alleviate these female ailments (one text called for removal of ovaries for "simple cussedness" and "eating like a plowman.") (Panati, op cit., p 318). American doctors in America were also willing to perform infibulation in the early twentieth century as a cure for female masturbation. (R. Spitz, "Authority and Masturbation", PSYCHOANALYTIC QUARTERLY 21,4 (1952), as cited by Marilyn French, THE WAR AGAINST WOMEN (Summit Books, 1992, p 111) Holt's DISEASES OF INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD, recommended cauterization to remove the clitoris, as a cure for masturbation as late as 1936. (V. Bullough and B. Bullough, SIN, SICKNESS, AND SANITY (New York: American Library, 1977), cited by Marilyn French, THE WAR AGAINST WOMEN (Summit Books,1992), p 111). Even as late as the 1950's there were some doctors who recommended the milder, female "circumcision" to either reduce or enhance sexual arousal. Today, all such claims are almost universally denounced as quackery.