SECTION VI Chapter 9 - Christian Attitudes Towards Women and Women's Rights "Unto the woman [Eve, God] said, I will greatly multiply thy sorrow and thy conception; in sorrow thou shalt bring forth children; and thy desire shall be to thy husband, and he shall rule over thee." -- Genesis 3:16 "I do not permit a woman to be a teacher, nor must a woman domineer over man; she should be quiet. For Adam was created first, and Eve afterwards; and it was not Adam who was deceived; it was the woman who yielding to deception, fell into sin. Yet she will be saved through motherhood--if only women continue in faith, love, and holiness, with a sober mind." --1 Timothy 2:12-15 "Let your women keep silence in the churches: for it is not permitted unto them to speak; but they are commanded to be under obedience, as also saith the law. And if they will learn any thing, let them ask their husbands at home; for it is a shame for women to speak in the church." --1 Corinthians 14:34-5 "For the sake of us MEN and our salvation he came down from heaven, was made flesh by the Holy Spirit from the Virgin Mary, and became man". -- popular Catholic mass recital of Nicene Creed (notice "women" are left out, as there were no women bishops present during the Nicene council of 325 C.E. when the creed was drafted.) " As I considered the power of myth, it became increasingly difficult to avoid questioning...the myths accompanying the religions that worship male deities had upon my own image of what it meant to be born a female. As a child, I was told that Eve had been made from Adam's rib, brought into being to be his companion and helpmate, to keep him from being lonely... I next learnt that Eve was considered to be foolishly gullible. My elders explained that she had been easily tricked by the promises of the perfidious serpent. She defied God and provoked Adam to do the same, thus ruining a good thing--the previously blissful life in the Garden of Eden. Why Adam himself was never thought to be equally as foolish was apparently never worth discussing." ---Merlin Stone "The feminist agenda is not about equal rights for women...It is about a socialist, anti-family political movement that encourages women to leave their husbands, kill their children, practice witchcraft, destroy capitalism, and become Lesbians." -- Televangelist Pat Robertson (1992) "I'm not denying that women are foolish; God Almighty made them to match the men." --George Eliot "Few, if any, of the so-called "sex differences" are due solely to sex. Individual differences often are greater than differences determined on the basis of sex....The social training of the two sexes is and always has been, different, producing differential selective factors, interests, standards, etc." -- Psychologist Chauncey N. Allen, 1927 Women's Rights in Ancient Civilizations Some feminists have observed that women have generally tended to enjoy a higher social and legal standing within their societies, whenever powerful FEMALE goddesses were respected and worshiped (as opposed to ONLY male deities!) Many historians, of course, do not believe they see such a clear-cut relationship. Still, it is interesting to study the role of women within ancient civilizations, while keeping this relationship to powerful female deities in mind. For many ancient civilization DID have powerful mother goddesses that could serve as powerful role models for women: such as Ishtar in ancient Babylon, Astarte in Phoenicia, and Isis in Egypt. These mother goddesses embodied such principles as BIRTH (and hence creation of life) and REBIRTH (and along with it the hope for resurrection and immortality.) Women in Ancient Sumeria/Babylonia/Assyria The ancient Sumerians and Babylonians worshipped both male and female gods. Although the most powerful god (Marduk) was a male, there was also an important goddess named Ashur (Ishtar) who was worshipped by men and women alike. Sumerian and Babylonian society can be seen to parallel the hierarchy of the deities they worshipped.-- While the males held the most important roles within society, still the females also enjoyed significant legal/social rights and independence. In ancient Sumner, women were given dowries by their husbands upon marriage--which the woman still controlled and could bequest after marriage. Upper class women could hold property and conduct business on their own. As the male gods became more powerful among the Sumerian city-states, women appear to have correspondingly declined in social status. In ancient Babylonia, women were granted important marital rights. If a wife left her husband, or was divorced by him, she took her dowry with her. Although a husband could divorce his wife at will, the wife could still divorce her husband based upon charges of cruelty or adultery in the marriage. Divorced women received custody of the children, and could receive financial support from their ex-husbands. Laws protected women from rape, by proscribing the death penalty as punishment. If a married woman engaged in adultery, she was expected to take an oath of fidelity at the Temple, and return home to her husband. Although women had less legal rights than the men, still historians have noted that in many ways the status of ancient Sumerian and Babylonian women were higher than in nineteenth century England or America. (John Langon-Davis, A SHORT HISTORY OF WOMEN, London: Watts & Co., 1928, pp. 86-7 as quoted by June Stephenson, WOMEN'S ROOTS, Diemer, Smith Publishing Co., Napa California, 1985, p 63) In stark contrast, the laws of Assyria did not have such egalitarian laws for their women. The ancient Assyrians worshipped a strong male god figure, while demeaning the earlier female worship of the goddess. In 1500 BC, following the conquest by the Assyrians, the myth was introduced that the god Marduk murdered the Goddess Ashur in order to gain supreme power in Babylon. Women were required to be veiled in public, and strict fidelity was expected upon penalty of death. If a woman was raped, her attacker was not directly punished. Instead the victim's closest male relative (ie her husband or father) received the right to rape the attacker's wife or daughter--in an "eye for an eye" version of justice. Alternatively the victim's father could marry his daughter to the rapist. As an interesting comparison, if a woman was raped in ancient Israel, hebrew law ordered the rapist to pay 50 shekels of silver to the woman's father, and then to take his victim for his wife. As further punishment, he was not allowed to "put her away"--ie divorce her. Both the Assyrian and hebrew laws gave the husband the right to murder his adulterous wife and lover--BUT NOT THE OTHER WAY AROUND. (Merlin Stone, WHEN GOD WAS A WOMAN, p 58-9) The Assyrians were also the first known ancient peoples in the area to specifically outlaw abortion.--Their laws declared the penalty to be death by impalement for the woman, if her child was aborted. (Even if a woman died during an abortion attempt, her corpse was impaled to denigrate it.) In contrast, the ancient hebrews had no direct laws outlawing abortion. Women in Ancient Egypt In ancient Egypt, women held the highest known status within the ancient world. They held property, participated in public life, and mixed freely with men within society. Women even kept their maiden names after marriage, as opposed to taking the names of their husband's family. All children belonged to their mothers, so that there was no stigma attached to illegitimacy for the children. The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus (first century C.E.) noted that queens were held in higher honor than kings, and that women ruled the household among the general population. In some respects women had secondary rights to the men. Adultery was a sin for Egyptian women, for which she could lose her dowry to her husband. A woman could not divorce her husband, although a man could divorce his wife. While women were expected to be monogamous, men could marry multiple wives and have concubines. Still, women could hold and bequeath property, testify in court, and obtain injunctions against men without the use of a guardian. They were allowed to move freely around in public, without recourse to a veil and without an attendant. According to Ramses II, "The foot of an Egyptian woman may walk where it pleases, and no one may deny her." Helen Diner, MOTHERS AND AMAZONS, New York: Doubleday and Co., Inc 1973, p 173 as quoted by June Stephenson, op cit., p 82) Isis, the mother goddess of the ancient Egyptians was the most important of all the goddesses of antiquity. As wife to the reincarnated god Osiris, Isis was seen as a powerful divine goddess with powers over love and matchmaking, curing the sick, and resurrecting the dead back to life. As the mother of Horus, she symbolized the role of life-giver and nurturer. Isis' powers included dominion over lightning, thunder, and the winds--areas usually reserved for male gods. She was believed to have given the people their laws, medicine, religion and writing. It was Isis who imparted knowledge in agricultural matters of turning food into grain. She was also credited with the invention of the sail boat, and was the patroness of navigation and commerce in port cities. Her cult especially appealed to women and slaves, and was popular well into the Christian Roman era. Women's high status in ancient Egyptian society appears to have been, at least partially, due to the worship of the powerful Egyptian goddess Isis. Indeed, in a hymn to Isis dating from the second century C.E. (and found in Oxyrhynchus, Egypt) can be found praises made to the goddess Isis, because "she made the power of women equal to that of men." Women in Ancient Greece When viewing ancient Greek society, the relationship of the status of women within society to the worship of female goddesses, becomes a more complicated subject which evolved over time. Along the Greek peninsula and Crete during the 14th and 15th centuries B.C.E., there were ancient civilizations where women appear to have held high positions within society. However, sometime following the invasion of northern tribes into Greece (such as the Dorians), women became second class citizens within many of the Greek city states-- including Athens. Arguably, this second class status for women occurred, DESPITE the presence of some powerful goddesses within their religion. This shall be examined next in more detail, first starting with pre-Greek society. --Women in the Minoan and Mycenean Empires Prior to being ravaged by a huge earthquake in the fifteenth century B.C.E., the Minoan civilization ruled from the Palace at Knossos off the island of Crete. (Some historians have speculated that the Minoan civilization and its destruction from a earthquake, was the basis behind the story of Atlantis.) Just as the Egyptians had worshiped a powerful goddess named Isis, ancient inscriptions show that the people of Crete worshipped a powerful mother goddess. Some paintings also suggest that women could (as in Egypt) mingle with the men in all aspects of society. Women appear to have held powerful positions within the Temples, and indeed, some have speculated may have even held some of the top positions within the priesthood. The Mycenean empire that developed along the Greek peninsula during the 14th century B.C.E., had a culture that was similar to the one found on Crete-- sharing for example their art and style of dress, their manner of writing, and their religious customs. They founded many pre-Greek cities along the Greek mainland, and introduced the worship of the Cretan Goddess into the area. According to E. Butterworth's book, SOME TRACE OF THE PRE-OLYMPIAN WORLD (1966), royal descent among many of Greece's largest cities (such as Argos, Thebbes, Tiryns and Athens) was traced through the mother instead of through the father (ie descent was matrilineal, as opposed to patrilineal). He believed this resulted from the worship of their Goddess, who had her origins in Crete. (Merlin Stone, WHEN GOD WAS A WOMAN, p 52) Following the successful invasion of various groups of northern peoples into the Mycenean peninsula towards the end of the 13th century B.C.E., ancient Greek society abruptly changed from a matrilineal to a patrilineal society. According to Butterfield: "Matrilineality, though not universal in the Greek and Aegean world, was widely spread ... the effect of the system of succession to the kingship and to the inheritance of property on the life of the times was immense. The majority of the clans were matrilineal by custom, and the greatest revolution in the history of early Greece was that by which the custom was changed from matrilineal to patrilineal succession and the loyalty to the clan destroyed." (as quoted by Merlin Stone, WHEN GOD WAS A WOMAN, p 52) From the 13th -10th centuries B.C.E., these northern invaders (Dorians) introduced their own culture into Greece. It is known that they worshiped a strong male Father God--Dyaus Pitar. He later became known throughout the ancient Greek world as Zeus, and in the Roman Empire as Jupiter. It has been speculated that Hera was a remnant of the ancient Mycenaean goddess--and that her subjugation to her husband Zeus was a symbolic reminder that all women were to be obedient to their husbands. (Ibid, p 51) Historians believe that Homer and Hesiod's mythologies on the adventures on the Greek gods (c. 9th century B.C.E.) refers to memories of this earlier period dominated by Mycenean culture-- although they were now written after males had taken control (including at most temples) away from the women. Interestingly, it can be seen that the Greek gods portrayed by both Homer and the poet Hesiod, did NOT possess the mystical birth/resurrection themes that can be found in the cultures of the Babylonians and Egyptians. Instead, the ancient Greeks now portrayed their gods with HUMAN-like qualities such as jealousy and anger. Some of these Greek mythologies clearly held anti-women themes. For example, in Hesiod's story of the creation of mankind, the first woman Pandora was supposedly sent by the gods to man, in punishment for receiving the secret of fire from Prometheus. It was from Pandora that "has sprung the race of womankind, the deadly race and tribes of womankind, great pain to mortal men with whom they live...so women are a curse to mortal men." (Hesiod, THEOGONY, line 591-593,601. Text translation by Judith Peller Hallett. Quoted in Sarah Pomeroy,GODDESSES, WHORES, WIVES, AND SLAVES, p 205.) On the other hand, it can ALSO be argued, that there were SOME powerful role models for women within their Greek mythology.-- Goddesses such as Athena, Aphrodite and Hera were often depicted as possessing such quintessential qualities as wisdom, beauty, and matron strength. The Greek goddess Demeter and Aphrodite were frequently identified with the Egyptian goddess Isis (just as Horus was associated with Apollo and Helios--and Serapis with Zeus, Dionysus and Hades.) Athena, goddess of wisdom was the patroness of the city-state of Athens. It was she who was credited with important advances made in agriculture, such as the use of the plow and the taming of horses. It was also Athena who made the first olive tree and first pressed olive oil (which was one of their most important trading commodities). As goddess of war, Athena symbolized war strategy and armaments. Some have noted that Athena was a "masculine" goddess. Instead of being born from a mother, she popped out of the head of Zeus following a "bad headache". Athena was portrayed more as a warrior, instead of with more feminine qualities--such as bearing/nurturing children. She showed no romantic interest with other gods or humans, remaining instead a virgin. There is an interesting mythical story that seeks to justify the social status of women in Athens. In the myth, the people voted in a contest as to who would be the patron of their city. All the men voted for Poseidon, while all the women voted for Athena. Because there was one more woman than there were men, Athena won the contest. In order to appease the anger of Poseidon, the women were thereafter punished by losing their right to vote and no longer being called by their mothers' names. --Women in Classical Athens During the times of Classical Athens (480-430 B.C.E.), Athenian society was already a strongly male dominated society--this despite the presence of strong female role models in both their religion (Athena, Artemis, Hera) and in their theater (such as the strong-willed Medea and Lysistrata.) The women of classical Athens were largely relegated to their homes, coming out in public mainly for weddings, funerals, or festivals. Most Athenian women during classical times were not educated, AND denied the right to vote along with the slaves. Athenian girls were ideally married off at the age of fourteen, to husbands who were around thirty. (Various commentators have noted that this meant Athenian mature males often married women that were little more than children--which may have played a factor in the Athenian male dominated society.) Secluded in their homes, Athenian women performed many household chores, such as weaving and raising children. Athenian men, in contrast, spent the days in public places such as the marketplace, gymnasium, or the academy. Property rights were managed through male guardians, either through a woman's father or brothers, or her husband and sons. Both men and women could obtain a divorce, although a women had to go through her father or some other male citizen if she initiated the divorce proceedings. Husbands had to pay back their dowry, if they divorced their wives. Perhaps it is no coincidence that in such a strongly male-dominated society, that men could freely choose to have sex not only with their wives--but with concubines (including young boys) and with prostitutes. Female consorts/ prostitutes (called "heterai") were prominent in Athenian society--and in some ways had more freedom than properly married Athenian wives. Often foreign-born, consorts/prostitutes ("heterai") were generally free to move around the city and in public. Married Athenian men often brought heterai to social gatherings, as opposed to their wives who stayed home. In the speech AGAINST NEAERA, one finds the following line: "We keep our hetaerai for pleasure, concubines for the daily care of our bodies, and wives for the bearing of legitimate children and to keep faithful watch over our homes." The most beautiful and intelligent of the heterai, were frequently glamorized in Athenian art and literature. Some could even achieve respect and fame in their own name. Aspasia, the (unmarried) companion to Pericles was probably the most famous example of the Athenian heterai. Renown both for her intelligence and wit, Aspasia was credited as the real author behind the powerful funeral oration delivered by Pericles during the early years of the Peloponnesian Wars. Socrates was said to have learned the art of rhetoric from Aspasia. (Of course, to put things in proper perspective, it is important to note that the majority of heterai were NOT famous. As with prostitutes everywhere, most worried about abuse and poverty--especially as they grew older.) --Women in other Greek States Some of the Greek city-states apparently had a culture whereby women were NOT secluded, as they were in Athens. Women priestesses still maintained powerful roles in temples in some of the Greek city-states--such as at the temple of Artemis (Diana) at Epheseus. In Epheseus and in Ionia overall, women generally enjoyed important social and political freedoms. There are records of some of these Greek women, who were renown for their abilities in philosophy and the sciences. For example, Aglaonice of Thessaly (fifth century B.C.E.), was famous for her mathematical ability to predict eclipses. Even in Sparta, women were not secluded in their homes, as were their Athenian women counterparts. Spartan women could instead mix freely with men both at political and sports events. (This included joint wrestling matches between men and women.) Women could inherit and manage property in their own name. Plutarch wrote how Spartan women typically married later than their Athenian women counterparts (eighteen vs. fourteen years of age.) Xenophon praised the Spartans for allowing girls and boys equal access to nourishment, unlike in other areas of Greece. (Plutarch LYCURGUS 14; Xenophon CONST. LACEDAEMONIANS 1.3) The reason why women were given more rights was probably because the Spartans needed every able bodied person to maintain rule over the large number of slaves in their society. In the north in Macedonia, women also had more freedoms than in restrictive Athens. Powerful queens (such as Alexander the Great's grandmother and mother) were known as ambitious and ruthless queens, who could control vast properties without guardians. After Alexander the Great's time, there were occassionally female monarchs in both the Ptolomy and Selucid empires. Other women could be well-educated and achieve high positions--as was the case of Hypatia who before her death in 415 C.E., was head librarian at the famous Library in Alexandria. Many commentators have found it ironic--that "democratic" Athens was MORE restrictive in terms of women's rights, than many of her Greek neighbors. Yet, others have noted that the Athenian model of democracy had always been restrictive--applying only to male free citizens (who comprised merely some 10% of the population.) Even freed slaves and foreigners were FORBIDDEN to become citizens, and thus vote or own land. This exclusion of women and slaves from the Athenian democracy did not go unnoticed during the times of the American Revolutionary War, when many people looked to ancient Athens as a role model for democracy. (This paradigm partly explains how slaves and women could, at first, be "justifiably" excluded under the American Constitution from voting.) --The Attitude of the Ancient Greek Philosophies Towards Women The Greek philosophies varied considerably on their attitude towards women. The Pythagoreans (sixth century B.C.E.) allowed women to study at its religious- philosophical order, apparently on an equal basis with the men. Other Greek schools such as the Epicureans and the Cynics also allowed women to study on an equal basis with the men. (It will be remembered that both of these ancient Greek philosophies encouraged the happiness of the individual, as opposed to the well being of the family or society). Of course, these two philosophical schools were far less influential than the Greek philosophical schools of Platonism and Stoicism--which did NOT hold women to be equal to the men. Both Plato and Aristotle had introduced philosophies that clearly presented women as INFERIOR to men (unlike Socrates who pushed for the education of women). As we have seen earlier, Plato and Aristotle were strong believers in a monotheism that portrayed an almighty (and masculine) God, who dwelled within the highest heaven of the universe. In his early work, the REPUBLIC, which laid out a utopian society, Plato explained the necessity of educating women to mate with the philosopher leaders of society. In later works such as the LAW, Plato became more conservative, arguing that women should be subordinate to the men. Plato acknowledged that some women could individually outperform less talented males on any given task. Still he believed, as a group, that men were more educable than women--and better at applying their knowledge and making new innovative discoveries. Plato's mystical religious views affected his views on women. Believing in reincarnation, Plato in his work TIMAEUS declared that "Evil and cowardly men are reborn as women, that being the first step downwards to rebirth as animals." Aristotle followed his mentor's footsteps in his views on the nature of women. In his POLITICS, Aristotle maintained, "Clearly, then, moral virtue belongs to all of them, but the temperance of man and of a woman, are not, as Socrates maintained, the same; the courage of a man is shown in commanding, a woman to obey. And this holds of all other virtues." Deeply religious, Aristotle assumed that men and women differed in the dimensional aspects of their SOUL. In his OECONOMICA, (Book 1, Chapter 3) Aristotle insisted that this difference is "preordained by the will of heaven." In his DE GENERATIONAE ANIMALIUM, Aristotle argued that the female was a "male deformed" and that the source of the soul was in the male semen. (II 737). Plato did allow women to study at his Academy in Athens. In practice, however, most of the women who attended Plato's Academy were probably Greeks who were born outside of Athens--where women were not as sheltered. One outstanding Greek woman was Areta of Cyrena (370-40 B.C.E.). Areta was the daughter of Aristippus who had founded the Cyrenaic School of philosophy. She was elected to succeed her father as head of his school, and for the next thirty-five years in Attica taught on the natural sciences, moral philosophy and ethics. The epitaph on her tomb dubbed her "the splendor of Greece" with "the beauty of Helen, the virtue of Thirma, the pen of Aristippus, the soul of Socrates, and the tongue of Homer." (Mozans, p 198 as quoted by Margaret Alic, HYPATIA'S HERITAGE,A HISTORY OF WOMEN IN SCIENCE FROM ANTIQUITY THROUGH THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, 1986, Beacon Press, Boston, p 26) The school of Stoicism (founded by Zeno around the third century B.C.E.) posited the equality and brotherhood of men, but did not extend this to women. Instead, the Stoics recommended the more familiar roles of wife and mother for women in society. Still, many Stoics emphasized the importance of fidelity in BOTH husbands and wives. As Stoicism was later taken up by Roman aristocratic women, it in turn influenced the Roman definition of the stable family unit, in terms of moral, religious and patriotic duty. Some Roman Stoics called for chastity in the marriage, except for the procreation of children. Women in Ancient Rome Roman society stressed the importance and sanctity of the family unit. Every family worshiped a series of images or statues associated with the spirits of their ancestors. A private altar was set up within each home. There, a "sacred" flame was kept burning, maintained 24 hours a day by the constant vigil of the females within the household. When the emperor Augustine had himself proclaimed a god in the Roman Senate, this amounted to adding his image among those already worshiped in all Roman households. Roman goddesses were portrayed in terms that emphasized faithfulness towards the home and family. Vesta (Hestia in Greek) was the goddess of the hearth and home. Ceres (whose name in Latin means "to grow" or "produce") was an important goddess of agriculture. The goddess Tellus (Mother Earth), was identified with the realm of nature, including agriculture. Both Ceres and Tellus were also considered to have powers over a woman's ability to produce children in her marriage. A few Roman women studied politics and law. There are some ancient Roman tombstones of women that refer to them as doctors, secretaries, and clerks. (Michael Grant, A SOCIAL HISTORY OF GREECE AND ROME, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1992). Although women typically did not hold high positions within the religious cults-- this was not the case within the priesthood of Ceres and the cult of Vestal [virgin priestesses], where women could administer a State level cult. (Sarah B. Pomeroy, WOMEN AND ROMAN RELIGION, taken from Kevin Reilly's READINGS IN WORLD CIVILIZATION, Vol. 1, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1988,p 94) In early ancient Rome, a MALE family member--be it the father, grandfather, brother, uncle, or nearest male relative--formally ruled over the household. Known as the PATERFAMILIA (head of family), he made all the important decisions within the family.--As such, every new member of the household-- from a new bride, servant, or newborn infant, required his approval in order to be formally taken into the family unit. Women were expected to remain faithful to their husbands, and to stay away from alcoholic beverages.--One of the reasons why the Bacchanalian rites were outlawed by the Roman senate in 186 B.C.E. , was because it was believed that the emotional displays during these "orgies" encouraged promiscuous behavior in women. (Livy, XXXIX, 8.) The numerous wars during the early Republic, served to weaken the authority of the paterfamilias. With males impressed into the army, this meant that women sometimes were allowed to run the farms and estates in the absence of men. This freedom of Roman women extended into social functions as well.--By the time of the emperor Augustus in the early first century C.E., Greek visitors commented on the freedom of upper-class women to mingle freely with the men during social meetings and dinners (in contrast with the highly sheltered Athenian women.) In early Roman marriages, the husband paid his betrothed's family for receiving the legal right of the bride from her father or male guardian. Later, it became common for the wife's family to also pay a dowry (possibly related to the low supply of men relative to women following numerous war campaigns.) Despite the subordinate position of the wife to her husband, Roman law was comparatively advanced for its time, as BOTH the husband and wife had to consent to the marriage contract, in order for it to be valid. The legal rule was stated as such: "Nuptias consensus non concubitus facit"-- consent, not intercourse, makes marriage). (Frances and Joseph Gies, MARRIAGE AND THE FAMILY IN THE MIDDLE AGES, Harper & Row, 1987). After the third century B.C.E., Roman women entered into marriage contracts that allowed them independent property rights. They were given legal rights to receive inheritances from their father's family, without turning these over to their husband. In these marriage contracts, the wife also retained her membership in her father's family. As such, women could rely on their male kinsmen to protect them if their husbands wronged them. (This became the most popular form of marriage contracts even before the times of Augustus.) Upper class Roman women were also able to obtain important control over their own legal matters through a number of legal devices and ruses-- such as applying to the magistrate to force the assent of her guardian or to have a different guardian appointed. There was still a double standard in regard to adultery. In the days of the Roman republic, pagan men could legally kill an adulterous wife caught in the act with her lover. (The reverse was not true of a Roman woman who caught her husband in an adulterous liaison.) The emperor Augustus replaced this harsh law with the lesser penalty of a fine, based on the size of a woman's dowry. Later, a wife who was similarly wronged, could receive her dowry back as settlement of her divorce. (It was not until the emperor Constantine, that adultery became officially declared as an equal crime for members of both sexes.) (Frances and Joseph Gies, op cit., p 28)) Divorce could be initiated by either the husband or the wife. One legal formula recited by the husband who repudiated his wife, was: "Take back what is yours". The wife who repudiated her husband, would state, "Keep what is yours." (Ibid, p 24) Despite some of the outrageous sexual liaisons and divorces among some of the wealthy classes and emperors, most Roman couples did not divorce, and stories of fidelity and love were clearly honored and admired. (This is similar to the scandals of the rich and famous in today's society, which do not necessarily reflect the day-to-day lifestyle of the common people.) There are a number of inscriptions that have survived bearing testimony to the love of Roman husbands for their wives. For example, "She was dearer to me than life..."."For love of her I have sworn never to remarry." etc. The same was true of women. One popular heroine named Turia saved her husband's life during the civil wars of Marius and Sulla. After failing to conceive children for her husband, she offered to step aside to let him marry a younger wife--to whose children she would be a second mother. Her husband refused her offer, saying "How could having children matter to that degree?" (Ibid, p 25-6) Interesting, many of our tradition ceremonies of marriage have come down to us from the Romans. There was a formal betrothal ceremony whereby the bride and groom-to-be exchanged pledges before the attending audience. In addition, the groom and father-in-law exchanged promises: "Do you promise to give your daughter to me to be my wedded wife?" "The gods bring luck! I betroth her." Afterwards, the wedded couple would kiss and the husband would place an iron ring on the third finger of the left hand of his new wife. (The Romans believed a vein ran from this finger directly to the heart, thus symbolizing love and faithfulness.) The formal wedding ceremony followed a few days later, in a tradition that would be recognizable even in today's society. The bride wore all white and a veil. The husband appointed a best man. There was a showering of walnuts (instead of rice) by the wedding guests, food and celebration, and even the carriage of the bride by her new husband over the bridal chamber. Jewish attitudes towards Women Ancient hebrews also upheld the importance and sanctity of marriage and family. Some ancient hebrew writings held quite liberal views towards women. Based on the Torah, women were given equal property rights with men. Thus, they could enter into contracts, and sue for damages in court.(Footnote: However, in some religious courts, the testimony of a woman was not held as high as that of a man, and sometimes was considered insufficient in itself, to obtain a conviction.) Women could also become judges, scribes, and prophets. There are references to women making a sacrifice with their husbands (Judges 13:23 and 1 Samuel 1:3ff), or alone in the shrine of Yahweh (Leviticus 12). Women are described as performing duties in the temple (Exodus 38:8; 1 Samuel 2:22), and beating the drum even in the temple in Jerusalem (Psalms 68:25) (references taken from Peter McKenzie, THE CHRISTIANS, THEIR BELIEFS AND PRACTICES, Abingdom Press, Nashville,1988, pp 215-6.) On the other hand, there are ancient Old Testament passages where women's rights were clearly secondary to those of the men. Ancient hebrew patriarchs were allowed to take multiple wives, although the reverse was not true--ie hebrew women could not take multiple husbands without being accused of adultery. In Deuteronomy 22:25, we are told that the penalty for a man raping a BETROTHED (ie married or engaged) women, was for him to be put to death. However if the women was a virgin and not engaged (22:28-9), then the man was to pay her father fifty shekels of silver, and then marry the woman.--And, because he had "humbled" her in this way, he was not allowed to later divorce her. (The consent of the raped woman was not mentioned here.) As we have seen, ancient Greek philosophical schools, such as those of Plato and Aristotle, held women to be morally inferior to men. The SAME was true of the ancient Jews. But the ancient Jews ALSO had a powerful biblical story that served to REINFORCE this negative stereotype of women.--For according to Genesis, it was Eve who was responsible for the loss of paradise in the Garden of Eden, when she tempted Adam to eat from the tree of knowledge. As punishment, God decreed to women that her: "desire shall be to thy husband and he shall rule over thee".(Genesis 3:16) According to Genesis, man was made directly in the "image of God". Women were thus created SECOND-HAND from one of Adam's ribs. During her menstrual cycle, and seven days thereafter, women were considered to be in an unclean state, and were either kept away from holy objects (meaning they could not enter into the Temple), or were purified. (Leviticus 15,19-33). Women were also considered unclean after childbirth--Her uncleanliness lasted 7 days and required 33 days of purification for a boy--but 14 days of uncleanliness and 66 days of purification for a girl. (Leviticus 12:2-8) Other negative references may be found in the Old Testament towards women. For example, in the book of Job, the question is asked, "...how can he be clean that is born of a woman?" (Job 25:4) It was during "late" Judaism that women became suppressed during worship Services, only men were allowed to recite certain prayers and to wear phylacteries. (Peter McKenzie, op. cit., p 216. Note some scholars such as Frymer-Kensky believe that during the development of Rabbinic Judaism, exposure to hellenism led to even more negative outlooks and legal restrictions placed on Jewish women. Frymer-Kensky, op. cit., p 214). In the Talmud are numerous warnings for good Jewish men to beware of the woman temptress and seducer. Even today, there is a daily prayer recited by conservative Jews whereby the males thank God in synagogue that they were NOT born as a woman. This prayer is recited as follows: "Blessed Art Thou O Lord our God, King of the Universe, who has not made me a woman." In some of the ultra-conservative sects within Judaism, men and women are even today segregated during religious services. In explaining the different treatment of women, conservative Jewish sects may argue that women are merely "excused" from performing important Torah duties. That is, women are not obligated (unlike Jewish males) to teach the Torah, read the morning prayer, nor pray daily. Some have argued that because women are innately MORE spiritual than the men, that they have less need to purify themselves of secular influences. Regarding the religious taboos against sexual intercourse during menstruation, they point out that this period of abstinence was NOT ordained because sex was considered dirty or sinful.-- Instead, it was established, according to rabbinic tradition, so that a husband would not take his wife for granted: "Because a man may become overly familiar with is wife, and thus repelled by her, the Torah says that she should be a 'niddah' [sexually pure] for seven days [following her menstrual period] so that she will be as beloved to him as on the day of marriage." (Niddah, 31b) Still, it is a fact that some CONSERVATIVE sects within Judaism, ALSO forbid women who wish to do so, to partake in important rituals that are clearly unrelated to purification rites--such as carrying a Torah scroll during services. There is also NO equivalent prayer for Jewish women to thank God that "they" had not been born a male. (Modern LIBERAL Jewish sects, of course, DO allow women to participate with the males in their religious ceremonies.) Despite some negative stereotypes of women, Jewish Rabbinic tradition places a strong value on the importance of sexual fulfillment of both the husband and wife in marriage. Jews view marriage and procreation to have been ordained from God, and thus emphasize a strong moral family unit. Jewish husbands have been renown for their loyalty and good treatment of their wives and families. Different passages (reflecting no doubt the diverse views and backgrounds of a number of Jewish scholars) also are very respectful of women. For example, a commentary in the Talmud urges husbands: "If your wife is short, bend down so as you can hear her wisdom." Jesus' Attitude Towards Women For his day, Jesus held a very LIBERAL and positive attitude towards women, compared to his fellow ancient Jews. According to the Babylonian Talmud, a Galilean Rabbi Yose was rebuked for merely asking a woman for directions to get to Lydda: "You stupid Galilean", was the rebuff, "have the Sages not commanded :'Do not engage in lengthy conversation with a woman!'" Jesus went against the social norms of his day by holding long, deep conversations with women such as Mary Magdalene. For example, one day "The disciples returned and were surprised to find him [Jesus] speaking to a woman" (John 4:27). Luke 10:38-42 tells how Mary sat at Jesus' feet and heard Jesus' speaking, and how her sister Martha later complained that she was having to do all the work. Also according to Luke, there were women who followed Jesus and his disciples: "With him went the twelve, as well as certain women who had been cured of evil spirits and ailments: Mary surnamed the Magdalen, from whom seven demons had gone out, Joanna the wife of Herod's steward Chuza, Susanna and several others who provided for them out of their own resources" (Luke 8:1-3). It was women (including Mary Magdalene) who were among the first to visit the empty tomb of Jesus, and who announced his resurrection. Many of the earliest devout Christian followers were women, and some even held important posts in the early Church. Jesus' Attitude Towards Divorce In the gospels, Jesus held a CONSERVATIVE attitude towards divorce-- In the gospel of Mark, Jesus forbade divorce under ALL circumstances (see Mark 10:9) According to Matthew, Jesus allowed a divorce only on grounds of adultery.(see Matthew 5:31-2). In our day and age, this is an extreme view.-- For there are obviously cases where women have experienced severe beatings, mutilations, and even death at the hands of their husbands. However, some have argued that possibly during ancient times when Jesus spoke, his was--relatively speaking--a very pro-woman and liberal stance. That is, the more common fear for a woman was for her to be thrown out on the streets following a divorce from her husband. Thus, the argument goes, what might appear to be a conservative view in modern times, could instead have been a liberal position by Jesus in his day. St. Paul's Attitude Towards Women St. Paul clearly saw women as subservient to the men: "...the women should keep silence in the churches. For they are not permitted to speak, but they should be subordinate...it is shameful for a woman to speak in church." (I Corinthians 14) "...a man... is the image and glory of God; but woman is the glory of man. For man was not made from woman, but woman from man. Neither was man created for woman, but woman for man." (I Corinthians 11:7-9) Although St. Paul denied women POLITICAL equality with the men, it is important to note that he stressed how, in SPIRITUAL terms, that men and women were equal "in Christ": "there is neither male nor female, for you are all one in Christ." (Galatians 3:28) Many early non-orthodox Christian sects allowed women to take leadership roles in the church. Marcion had created a scandal among orthodox Christians, when he appointed women and men on an equal basis as priests and bishops. The Montanists held two women, Priscilla and Maximilla, as founders of their movement. In Christian Gnosticism, Mary Magdalene was the bearer of important "knowledge". Many gnostic groups held very liberal attitudes towards women-- revering some as teachers, traveling evangelists, healers, priests, prophets, and possibly even bishops. (Elaine Pagels, GNOSTIC GOSPELS, p 72) In the early Christian church, St. Thecla of Ioconium was accepted as a true female preacher of the Gospel and an ordained Apostle of Christ. Thecla was a companion of St. Paul and, according to the book ACTS OF PAUL AND THECLA, ordained by no less an authority than St. Paul himself. Tertullian doubted the authenticity of this new testament writing, and in 367 C.E., it was barred from the official canon in the west. The eastern Orthodox Church continued to count Thecla as a true Apostle of Christ. However, according to Catholic tradition, there were no female apostles. Today the ACTS OF PAUL AND THECLA is one of the books included in the Apocrypha. It was primarily WESTERN Orthodox Christians that led the effort to relegate women's roles back to their "proper" place. According to the Christian Orthodox father, Tertullian: "It is not permitted for a woman to speak in the church, nor is it permitted for her to teach, nor to baptize, nor to offer [the eucharist] nor to claim for herself a share in any masculine function--not to mention any priestly office." (Tertullian, DE VIRGINIBUS VELANDIS 9.) The New Testament letter of Timothy (which is widely believed to be a letter written much later after Paul's death), states: "Let a woman learn in silence with all submissiveness. I permit no woman to teach or to have authority over men; she is to keep silent. For Adam was formed first, then Eve; and Adam was not deceived, but the woman was deceived and became a transgressor. Yet woman will be saved through bearing children, if she continues in faith and love and holiness with modesty." (I Timothy 2:11-5) By the year 200 C.E., the majority of Christian communities in the Western Roman empire appear to have endorsed the view that women were to have a subservient role in both family and church. As a result, there are only revered scholarly Church FATHERS, as opposed to Church MOTHERS. Women role models were typically virgins--in the mold of the virgin mother Mary. Early Christian Views on the Nature of Women Plato and Aristotle had written how men were morally superior to women. The early Christian church, which incorporated parts of Plato's philosophy into their doctrine held a more extreme view on women's moral inferiority.-- That is, women ALSO came to be perceived as a temptress-- ie a THREAT to lead righteous MEN AWAY from God and thus the promises of heaven. The biblical story of Eve, gave strong justification for the paradigm of women's natural tendency towards wickedness. This can be seen, for example, from Tertullian's writings (second century C.E.) on how women could not escape the evil associated with the sin of their first Mother, Eve: "Do you [women] not know that you are each an Eve? The sentence of God on this sex of yours lives in this age: the guilt must of necessity live too. "YOU are the devil's gateway; YOU are the unsealer of that forbidden tree; YOU are the first deserter of the divine law; YOU are who persuaded him whom the devil was not valiant enough to attack. YOU so carelessly destroyed man, God's image. On account of YOUR desert--that is, death--even the Son of God had to die." (Tertullian, ON FEMALE DRESS, I, i) Although Jesus had never referred to the doctrine of Original Sin, by the second century C.E., Clement of Alexandria had associated it with the discovery of sex by Adam and Eve. St. Augustine greatly expanded the concept to refer to sexual DESIRE, rather than simply the sexual ACT. Because early Christians (unlike Jews) perceived SEX itself to be evil, women--with the exception of virgins--became seen in STRONGLY MORAL undertones, as the very embodiment of evil. Implications of Augustine's Views of Original Sin on Womanhood It was St. Augustine's writings on women, that formed the basis for much of the view on womanhood during Medieval times (some would argue up to present times as well.) Many of Augustine's doctrines were based on his study of Genesis in the story of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, and its implications on womanhood in the scheme of God's creation. St. Augustine carefully noted how Genesis states that MAN was made in the image of God--and not woman. When struggling over the question whether children in Eden were sexually procreated, St. Augustine reasoned that procreation must have been the only reason why God would have made women: "I don't see what sort of help woman was created to provide man with, if one excludes the purpose of procreation. If woman is not given to man for help in bearing children, for what help could she be? To till the earth together? If help were needed for that, man would have been a better help for man. The same goes for comfort in solitude. How much more pleasure is it for life and conversation when two friends live together than when a man and a woman cohabitate" (DE GENESI C.E. LITTERAM 9,5-9) Thus, the reasoning went, since women are inferior to men, God must have created them for the sole purpose of having children. Eve had become the "temptress fatale" to Adam when she talked him into eating from the tree. Her punishment was clearly stated in Genesis--In addition to becoming subordinate to her husband, she would henceforth be condemned to have children in great pain. Catholic Christian Position on Divorce Early Catholic Christian fathers, such as Jerome, Ambrose, and Augustine, taught that divorce was a sin, and forbade it even in extreme cases-- such as a husband's prolonged absence or captivity in war (which was legal during this time in the Christian Roman Empire). St. Ambrose (340-397 C.E.), archbishop of Milan condemned divorce, in ANY situation: "Do not seek a divorce, because you are not allowed to marry another while your life is living...It is the crime of adultery...And it is more serious that you think you should seek the authority of the law for your sin." (Gies, p 40, referencing W. J. Dooley, MARRIAGE ACCORDING TO ST. AMBROSE, Washington, D.C., 1948, p 95) St. Augustine concluded that marriage for Christians was to be held as a sacrament, a divinely ordained (and therefore permanent) union between a husband and wife. Still, the pagan tradition of divorce was not easily changed. Constantine, along with later Christian Roman emperors had attempted to restrict one's right to divorce, but apparently recognized there would be great resistance to abolishing this outright. In 1268, the Church decreed that a religious ceremony was necessary in order to legalize a marriage. At the same time, stronger controls were placed on divorce--whereby the Church ruled whether separation or an annulment would be allowed. Allowable grounds for divorce included if the marriage had not been consummated, or if one of the two partners were guilty of heresy, adultery, or cruelty. Neither parties were allowed to remarry in the case of an annulment--and if there were any children from the marriage, these were legally recognized as bastards. Role of Women during the Middle Ages During the Middle Ages, the Catholic church had sanctified Augustine's views on man's loss of free will and the consequent need for a strong external autocratic rule. This, in turn, influenced the "official" Church's views on sex and womanhood. The role of women became redefined by male Catholic Fathers who looked to the Bible for their source of authority, and to Medieval Church authorities such as Tertullian, St Jerome, and St Augustine. It was generally believed that women could be easily tempted into evil-- just as Eve had succumbed to the wiles of the serpent, and then tempted Adam into eating the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge. In this way, she introduced Adam into carnal (ie sexual) knowledge-- and as a consequence-- all humanity lost their birthright immortality from living in the Garden of Eden. Women had been created as inferior to men. After all, in the original creation, God had made Eve out of one of his ribs. For Eve's role in tempting Adam to eat from the Tree of Good and Evil, God had commanded women to be obedient to men, and to suffer painful childbirths. During medieval times, women were not allowed to hold political or religious office, nor could they serve in any professional capacity as lawyers or judges. Instead, the redemption for women in overcoming the sin of their great ancestor Eve lay in PASSIVELY submitting themselves towards their duty to their husbands, and having children. Because of women's natural disposition towards evil, canon law during the Middle Ages specifically allowed the practice of wife-beating. In his CONFESSIONS, Augustine had told how women friends of his mother were beaten by their husbands--but indicated that "the fault was in their tongues" and not from their abusive husbands. Medieval fathers took this as authority that the practice of wife beating was deserved. One story told by Geoffrey de la Tour de Landry to his daughters (1371), illustrates how girls during medieval times were taught to submit to their husbands and to suffer in silence: "Here is an example to every good woman that she suffer and endure patiently, nor strive with her husband nor answer him before strangers, as did once a woman who did answer her husband before strangers with short words; and he smote her with his fist down to the earth; and then with his foot he struck her in her visage and brake her nose, and all her life after she might not for shame show her face, it was so foul blemished. And this she had for her language that she was wont to say to her husband. And therefore the wife ought to suffer, and let the husband have the words, and to be master, for that is her duty." (Geoffrey de la Tour de Landry, BOOK OF THE KNIGHT TOWER, 1371, as quoted by June Stephenson, PHD, WOMEN'S ROOTS, p 80). Laws were passed in some areas, whereby a man was only allowed to beat his wife "within reason". Still wife-beating was so common, that in 1427, a priest named Barnardino of Siena suggested in a sermon that his male parishioners might exhibit more restraint in beating their wives--so as to at least show as much mercy as they might give their hens and pigs. (Ibid.) Medieval marriages were arranged by parents and sometimes formalized even when the bride and groom were still children. Consummation of the marriage would occur as soon as it was biologically possible. Thus a young duke or prince might find himself a father at the age of thirteen. A young girl could have multiple children by the age of sixteen. Even serfs married their children off early, because if a male serf died, the lord of the manor had the right to arrange the marriage of his children in his stead. (Ibid, p 177-8) The Cult of the Virgin Mary The promotion of the cult of the Virgin Mary beginning in the eleventh century C.E., did provide medieval women with a powerful woman role model. Mary was worshiped as the quintessence of virginity, obedience, and goodness. Because of her perceived feminine qualities of love and compassion, believers prayed to Mary to intercede with Jesus and God--for forgiveness of their sins. Still, some have argued that this was a ploy by celibate men to firmly keep women subjugated. According to the liberal Catholic bishop John Shelby Spong, in his controversial book, BORN OF A WOMAN: "Again and again the role of Mary was to legitimize the patriarchal value system and to keep women in a controlled behavior pattern in which the primary purpose of a woman, and therefore the primary value of Mary, was to serve the needs--physical and emotional--of the dominant male. The power of the male was based upon his ability to define women in terms of biology, a capacity to associate sex with evil and guilt, and a refusal to allow women into positions of authority." (John Shelby Spong, BORN OF A WOMAN--A BISHOP RETHINKS THE BIRTH OF JESUS Harper San Francisco, 1992, pp221-222.) Note Bishop Spong believes the attempt to read the Bible LITERALLY will only harm the viability of the Church in the long-term. He encourages believers to look deep within our human consciousness to find the "true" God and Jesus.) During the Middle Ages, there were essentially no other "good" role models for women (except for "other" nuns and saints who also followed the model of Mary.) Therefore, the only strong role model women had -- taught that they should remain meek, obedient, and of course chaste. Even marriage was questioned by some theologians as compromising a woman's virginity--and therefore purity. There was no more respected role for a woman than to become a nun--whereby she could lead a chaste, virtuous life in prayer. However, because this highly idealized vision of goodness and purity was so difficult to attain, women could easily be characterized as sinful and otherwise "inadequate" for falling "short" of this goal. The idealized medieval view of virginity reached such a pitch, that there were some women who reportedly committed suicide while they were still young and virgins-- to guarantee their place in heaven. (Because they killed themselves in martyrdom for their faith, their suicide was not considered a "sin".) References to a male-dominated theology can also be seen in some of the important Church father's writings. St. Bernard stated that a man should always remember his humble origins of being born by a woman--and therefore born in sin. St Thomas Aquinas (showing his Greek classical influences) wrote that a woman is an imperfect man, inferior in both body and soul. Women were created only because God's creation required imperfection to co-exist with perfection (ie, men). According to St. Aquinas, women should be punished MORE severely than men for adultery. Hugucio went further, stating that virginity is required for women, but not from men. Both men held the general belief that women were more likely to commit acts of lust and sexual excesses than men. Witch Trials of Europe The contemptuous view held by Church officials of women in general, can be seen in the MALLEUS MALEFICARUM (15th century)--which was the "official" manual used by Church Inquisitors for trying witches--and became so popular, that it sold almost as many copies as the Bible itself. The manual directs blame for witchcraft as follows: "All witchcraft comes from carnal lust, which is in women insatiable." In answering WHY "there are more women than men found infected with the heresy of witchcraft" the authors of the work proposed the following causes: * "...they [women] are more credulous; and since the chief aim of the devil is to corrupt faith, therefore he rather attacks them." * "women are naturally more impressionable, and more ready to receive the influence of a disembodied spirit" * "they have slippery tongues and are unable to conceal from their fellow women those things which by evil arts they know; and, since they are weak, they find an easy and secret manner of vindicating themselves by witchcraft." *"they are feebler both in mind and body" "But the natural reason is that she is more carnal than a man, as is clear from her many carnal abominations. And it should be noted that there was a defect in the formation of the first woman, since she was formed from a bent rib, that is, a rib of the breast, which is bent as it were in the contrary direction to a man. And since through this defect she is an imperfect animal, she always deceives..." The MALLEUS MALEFICARUM provided guidelines for lying and torturing suspected witches. It was necessary to strip her naked and shave the hair "from every part of her body". This was done as they "are in the habit of hiding some superstitious object in their clothes or in their hair, or even in the most secret parts of the bodies, which must not be named." The probe over the women's body looked not only for demonic charms, but also for "witch's marks"-- ie birthmarks, warts or moles that were believed to have been place on the witch by the Devil himself. During the questioning, inquisitors were to tie up the woman and "apply to her some engine of torture." Inquisitors were told to follow a script whereby one of them would act with "regret" over the torture of the woman and ask for her release. At this point, he was to offer the witch her life, if she would give the names of other accomplice witches. After the witch had confessed a list of other names (ie new witches), then the "concerned" inquisitor was to dismiss himself, and let another inquisitor take over to condemn the witch to death. In this way, by some estimates hundreds of thousands of "witches" were tortured and killed in Europe--usually by being burned at the stake. Some modern psychiatrists attribute these anti-women beliefs to have originated from CELIBANT churchman, who were fighting off their natural sexual desires. That is, by identifying all sexual urges for women as sinful, the clergymen PROJECTED this into the belief that the world was filled with "evil" women trying to tempt them from their great calling to God. Thus, during the famous witch trials in Europe, the vast majority of accused and tortured for being in league with the Devil were women--and not men. In the hysteria that followed, some women reinforced this belief by fantasizing that they had been either tricked by clever demons, or temporarily possessed by either the devil or his demonic followers. Epidemics of demonic possession swept nunnery after nunnery--whereby seemingly virtuous nuns were seized by an evil force that threw here on the ground. Typically, the "possessed" woman began using obscene language and sexual gestures. (Many psychologists today attribute such actions to repressed sexual feelings by women.)